
Class O / Z'S^ 
Book, //J^ 



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GTOEOaGHT DEPOSm 





Interior of N. C. College and Station Dairy Barn, Designed by the Author. 




Twin Concrete Silos on "Michels' Stock Farm." 



Dairy Farming 

BY 

JOHN MICHELS, B. S. A., M. S. 
Practical Dairy Farmer 

Author of "Creamery Buttermaking," "Market Dairying and 

Milk Products" and "Milk and Milk Products 

in the Home" 



For nine years Professor of Dairying and Animal Husbandry 
in State Agricultural Colleges 



EIGHTH EDITION, REVISED 



ILLUSTRATED 



PEEBLES. WISCONSIN 

Published by the Author 

1916 

All Rights Reserved 






COPYRIGHT, BY 

JOHN MICHELS 

1907, 1911 and 

1916 



k!.A453839 



PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. 

In the preparation of this work, the endeavor has been 
to arrange in a concise and systematic form the essential 
facts relating to the science and practice of dairy farm- 
ing. It embodies the Author's twenty years' experience, 
both as a practical dairyman and as a student and teacher 
of dairy husbandry. Technical terms have been avoided 
as far as possible, in order that the book may not only 
meet the needs of the class-room, but also serve as a 
convenient and useful handbook for farmers not versed 
in the sciences. 

In preparing the third edition of Dairy Farming, a 
thorough revision has been made of the entire book and 
about one hundred pages of new matter added. The addi- 
tion of the large amount of important new matter should 
materially increase the usefulness of the book. 

The general adoption of the book as a text and refer- 
ence book in American Dairy Schools and the warm re- 
ception that has been generally accorded it, naturally has 
been a source of much satisfaction to the author and has 
prompted him more than ever to leave nothing undone 
in the present revision to make the book worthy of the 
confidence in which it is being held. 



m* Kt ^ 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PART I. THE DAIRY HERD. 

Page. 

Chapter I. Dairy Farming a Profitable Business... 7 

Chapter II. Evolution of the Dairy Cow 9 

Chapter III. Selection of Dairy Cows 11 

Chapter IV. Selection of Dairy Sires 17 

Chapter V. Building Up a Dairy Herd 20 

Chapter VI. Breeds of Dairy Cattle 25 

Chapter VII. Feeding the Dairy Cow 33 

Chapter VIII. Silos and Silage 52 

Chapter IX. Method of Keeping Herd Records 60 

Chapter X. Milking 68 

Chapter XI. Herd Management 73 

Chapter XII. Rearing the Dairy Calf 82 

Chapter XIII. Dairy Barn 86 

Chapter XIV. Handling Farm Manure loi 

Chapter XV. Pow.er on the Farm 106 

Chapter XVI. Diseases and Ailments of Dairy Cattle.. no 

PART II. MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 

Chapter XVII. Milk 123 

Chapter XVIII. The Babcock Test 135 

Chapter XIX. Bacteria and Milk Fermentations 146 

Chapter XX. Sanitary Milk Production 155 

Chapter XXI. Farm Butter-Making 165 

Chapter XXII. Farm Cheese-Making 187 

Chapter XXIII. Starters 193 

Chapter XXIV. Soft and Fancy Cheese-Making 199 

Chapter XXV. Cooling and Aeration of Milk and 

Cream 205 

Chapter XXVI. How to Secure a Good Market 213 

Chapter XXVII. Marketing Milk and Cream 217 

Chapter XXVIII. Ice Cream Making 228 

5 



6 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Page. 

Chapter XXIX. Skimmilk-Buttermilk 233 

Chapter XXX. Certified Milk 236 

Chapter XXXI. Relative Market Value of Milk and Its 

Products 239 

PART III. supple;mEnT. 

Chapter XXXII. Valuing Dairy Stock 244 

Chapter XXXIII. Legumes (Alfalfa and Clovers) 253 

Chapter XXXIV. The Dairy House 256 

Chapter XXXV. Washing and Sterilizing Milk Vessels. .263 

Chapter XXXVI. Keeping Accounts 269 

Chapter XXXVII. Water and Ice Supply 274 

Chapter XXXVIII. Dairy By-Products 280 

Chapter XXXIX. Machine Milking 282 

Chapter XL. Pasteurization of Milk and Cream 284 

Chapter XLI. Calculating Dividends 287 

Appendix 291 

Index 297 



PART I. 

THE DAIRY HERD. 



CHAPTER I. 

DAIRY FARMING A PROFITABLE; BUSINESS. 

That dairy farming is a profitable business is fully at- 
tested by its unprecedented growth during the past 
decade and a half. No other branch of agriculture has 
ever witnessed such rapid development in a similar period 
of time. Its growth has not been confined to any par- 
ticular section or sections of the country, but has been 
noticeable in all sections. 

The profits that have prompted this rapid and general 
expansion of the dairy business have been derived from 
two sources : ( i ) direct profits realized from the sale of 
milk, cream, butter and cheese; (2) indirect profits ac- 
cruing from an increased fertility of the land and the con- 
sequent increased productiveness of the same. 

Direct Profits. It is pretty well conceded that in gen- 
eral dairy cows yield greater returns for feed consumed 
than either swine, sheep or beef animals. A good cow 
will yield not less than 300 pounds of butter a year, which, 
at 25 cents per pound, is worth $75. Adding to this the 
value of 6,000 pounds of skim milk at 20 cents per 100, 

7 



8 DAIRY FARMING 

and $io as the value of the calf, we have a total income 
of $97 a year. Subtracting from this $50 as the average 
cost of the feed, we have $47 remaining to pay for the 
labor and interest on investments. 

Where good milk and cream markets are available the 
income from the sale of milk and cream may be actually 
double that from butter at 25 cents per pound. More- 
over, with cows of a higher productive capacity than that 
here considered, the profits would be more than propor- 
tionally increased. 

Indirect Profits. The marvelous growth of the dairy 
industry has in part been necessitated by the need of con- 
serving and increasing the fertility of lands that have 
been cultivated without due regard to maintaining soil 
fertility. The selling of raw products from the farm, 
such as hay and grains, has been a constant source of soil 
impoverishment. This method of robbing the soil of its 
natural plant food has made farming in many of the New 
England and Southern States well nigh impossible with- 
out the aid of commercial fertilizers. In some of these 
states as much as $7,000,000 is expended annually for 
these fertilizing materials. 

By feeding the raw materials of the farm to dairy cows, 
we are not only manufacturing high priced products as 
compared with the value of the raw material, but we are 
retaining upon the farm that valuable by-product, the 
manure, which contains about 75% of the fertilizing con- 
stituents originally present in the feed. Where only but- 
ter is sold, practically all of the fertilizing ingredients of 
the feed are recovered, since butter contains scarcely any 
fertilizing material. Even where cream is sold about 
95% of the fertilizing value of the feed is retained upon 
the farm. 



CHAPTER II. 

EVOLUTION OF THE DAIRY COW. 

The dairy cow is one of the most useful as well as one 
of the most profitable of all our domestic animals. Her 
products not only supply an indispensable want in the 
human dietary, but they are also the source of much profit 
to her owner. 

Comparing the modern cow with her primitive ances- 
tors a most interesting and instructive evolution in her 
milk giving function is noted. In the wild or primitive 
state her milk production was confined to a short period 
following parturition and was barely sufficient for the 
support of the calf. In her present form the amount of 
milk necessary for the support of the calf constitutes but 
a small part of her total possible production and its secre- 
tion is almost incessant. 

Like the race horse, the dairy cow has been bred and 
handled for a specific purpose for a number of centuries. 
Continued specialization has resulted not only in an 
enormous increase of milk and butterfat production, but 
as a result of such increased production there has been 
created a specific conformation known as the dairy type. 

At no period in the development of the dairy cow have 
such great strides been made as in the past half a cen- 
tury. Indeed, the period of general and systematic im- 
provement in the common stock may be said to date from 
the invention of the Babcock test. Fifteen years ago the 
average butter production was approximately 125 pounds 

9 



10 DAIRY FARMING 

per cow. To-day the average production appoximates 
175 pounds per cow. 

There are hundreds of herds scattered over the 
country that average 300 pounds of butter per cow and 
many herds exceed even the 400 pound mark. Scores 
of individual cows could be mentioned that have reached 
the 600 and 700 pound mark, and the world's champion 
cow holds the phenomenal record of over 1,200 pounds 
of butter in one year. 

Among the factors that have been instrumental in 
bringing about the remarkable evolution in the milk pro- 
ducing function of the cow, the following are the most 
important : ( i ) selection, or breeding only from the 
best milkers; (2) liberal and judicious feeding; (3) 
proper milking; (4) suitable environment, including con- 
ditions as to housing and sanitation; (5) good care and 
management. These factors will always continue the 
most important in the improvement of our modern herds, 
and will be discussed in the chapters which follow. 



CHAPTER III. 

SELECTION OF COWS. 

Success in dairying depends in a large measure upon 
one's ability to select the right animals in starting and 
building up the herd. Unless adapted by nature for 
dairy purposes, cows will remain unprofitable in spite of 
the best feed and management. The first lesson the 
dairyman has to learn, therefore, is to know how to dis- 
criminate between good cows and poor cows. The 
cardinal points to consider in the selection of a cow are: 
(i) butterfat production; (2) type; (3) purity of breed- 
ing; (4) pedigree; and (5) health. 

BUTTERFAT PRODUCTION. 

The best guide in the selection of cows is the actual 
butterfat record as determined by a pair of scales and a 
Babcock tester. It is not enough to simply know the 
quantity of milk yielded by a cow ; one must also know 
its fat content, for it is this that measures the value of 
milk for commercial uses as well as for butter and cheese 
production. 

The method of determining the butterfat production 
of cows is treated in detail in chapter IX. 

CONFORMATION OR TYPE. 

All dairy experts recognize a definite type as associated 
with economical milk production. The judge in the 
show ring bases his judgment entirely upon type or con- 

11 



12 



DAIRY FARMING 



formation. While there still may be differences of opin- 
ion among breeders as to minor points, these are really 
of little consequence. The points that go to make up 
the ideal type will be treated under six heads : ( i ) dairy 
temperament; (2) feeding capacity; (3) constitution; 
(4) milk organs; (5) quality; and (6) pelvic region. 




Fig. 1. — Points of a Dairy Cow. 
1. Muzzle. 2. Forehead. 3. Neck. 4. Withers. 5. Back. 6. I^oins. 
7. Hip. 8. Pelvic arch. 9. Rump. 10. Pin bone. II. Shoulder. 12. Chest. 
13. Heart Girth. 14. Side. 15. Belly. 16. Flank. 17. Milk well. 18. Milk 
vein. 19. Fore udder. 20. Udder. 21. Teats. 22. Hind udder. 23. Thigh. 

Dairy Temperament. This is indicated by a rather 
spare, angular form; large, bright, expressive eyes, far 
apart and placid ; a rather long, clean face slightly dished ; 
forehead wide and rather long; wide juncture of head 
and neck ; a large, straight, prominent backbone with 
well defined spinal processes ; ribs and vertebrae wide 
apart ; sharp withers ; spare, incurving thighs ; and a high 
arching flank : all of which indicates strong nerve develop- 
ment, or power to do work. 

Feeding Capacity. This is indicated by a long, broad, 
deep, capacious barrel, showing well sprung ribs diverging 
toward the rear; a broad muzzle; and a strong jaw. 



THB DAIRY HERD 13 

Constitution. This is indicated by large, bright, clear 
eyes ; large, open nostrils ; wide, deep chest ; strong navel 
development ; strong abdominal walls ; absence of ex- 
treme refinement ; and a soft, pliable skin with plenty of 
secretion : all of which indicates strength and vitality. 

A heavy milker is one of the hardest worked of all 
animals, and unless possessed of a strong constitution, 
she can never do her maximum work and an early break- 
down may be expected. 

Milk Organs. These include a large, evenly quartered, 
elastic udder, running well forward and well up behind ; 
large, tortuous milk veins running well forward and 
branched ; numerous, large, capacious milk wells ; and 
medium sized teats, squarely placed, and far apart. 

Large, fleshy udders are undesirable, as they possess a 
relatively small milk elaborating capacity, and are more 
subject to disorders than moderately large, elastic udders. 

The milk veins, which carry the blood away from the 
udder, are deserving of careful attention. When the ori- 
fices (milk wells) through which they enter the body are 
large, the size of the milk veins may be taken as a fair 
indication of the amount of blood they carry. 

A large flow of blood away from the udder presup- 
poses a large flow into it, and since milk is secreted from 
the blood, the quantity which flows through the veins 
must be some indication of milk producing capacity. 

Quality. This is indicated by a soft, oily, pliable skin, 
of medium thickness ; short, soft silky hair ; yellow secre- 
tion in the ears ; fine textured bone ; rather small and 
refined ears and horns ; yellowish wax at the base of the 
horns ; and a general absence of coarseness in any part. 

Pelvic Region. This should be large to afiford room 
for the calf, especially during its delivery. A good pelvic 



14 DAIRY FARMING 

region is indicated by a high, long, broad rump, broad 
hips and loins, and good width between the pin bones. 

Additional observations on type should be directed 
to the following: Shoulder, free from flesh and rather 
sharp at the withers ; tail, long and refined ; hocks, clean, 
well apart, and pointing straight backward, giving roomi- 
ness for the udder; front legs, straight and well apart, 
with toes pointing directly forward. 

The escutcheon, which refers to the rear portion of the 
animal where the hair turns up, was the subject of con- 
siderable study by a Frenchman named Quenon, who 
regarded the size and shape of it as the chief indication 
of merit in dairy cows. At the present time, however, 
very little importance is attached to this point. 

PURITY OF BREEDING. 

Selection is based upon the law that "like produces 
like." According to this law the characters of the par- 
ents are transmitted to the offspring with a greater or 
less degree of certainty. The purer the breeding of the 
parents the greater the certainty of such transmission. 
Thus, for example, one can figure with much certainty 
that the progeny of pure-bred parents of the same breed 
will resemble its parents in all essential characteristics. 
On the other hand, there is no certainty whatever that the 
off-spring of parents of promiscuous breeding will resem- 
ble its parents, either in important or unimportant particu- 
lars. It may be like them or it may be totally unlike them. 

It is the long period of breeding along one line without 
admixture of foreign blood that gives the pure-bred 
animal the superior power of transmitting its qualities to 
its offspring, a power which is known as prepotency. In 
the building up of a dairy herd it is of the highest im- 



THE DAIRY HERD IS 

portance to have animals which transmit their qiiaHties 
to their offspring with a high degree of certainty, and it 
is for this reason that pure-bred animals are so much pre- 
ferred to those of promiscuous breeding. 

PEDIGREE. 

A pedigree is a recorded statement of the ancestry of 
an animal. It is furnished in many cases simply as a 
guarantee of purity of breeding. Its real value, however, 
is determined by the merit of the animals which it repre- 
sents. A 300 pound butter cow with an unbroken list of 
noted dairy performers back of her is much to be pre- 
ferred to a 300 pound cow among whose ancestors some 
inferior individuals are found, and especially if the infer- 
ior individuals are near ancestors. 

While, generally, pedigreed animals are much to be 
preferred to those of promiscuous breeding, it by no 
means follows that all pedigreed animals are desirable. 
Far from it. There probably are now-a-days as many poor 
pedigreed dairy animals as good ones. "Scrubs" are 
found among pedigreed cows just as they are found 
among common or native cows, though of course far 
less frequently. 

The reason of the existence of inferior individuals 
among pure-bred dairy animals is found in the fact that 
eligibility to registration in most cases is not based upon 
production or individual excellence, but upon purity of 
breeding. This fact has made it possible for many 
animals to enter the herd register which, by nature, were 
fit only for the shambles. In the purchase of pure-bred 
stock, therefore, no judicious selection can be made from 
a mere list of names of individuals, no matter how long 
this list is or how "high soundinsf" the names it contains 



16 DAIRY FARMING 

may be. One must know the production and individual 
excellence of the animals represented in the pedigree. 
The greatest stress should be laid upon the near or 
immediate ancestry of the animal under consideration. 

Fortunately there is what is known as an advanced 
registry, or register of merit, the basis of admission to 
which, in addition to pure breeding, is the merit of the 
individuals as dairy performers. It is much to be hoped 
that this method of registration will soon replace entirely 
the common method whose sole requisite for registration 
is purity of breeding. 

HEAI^TH O^ ANIMALS. 

The prevalence of tuberculosis, contagious abortion, 
and other diseases, makes it imperative to make the matter 
of health an important consideration in the selection of 
dairy animals. Indeed diseased animals, no matter how 
valuable in other respects, should be rigidly excluded from 
the herd. 

It is the height of folly to select dairy animals without 
making rigid inquiry as to their freedom from tuber- 
culosis and contagious abortion. Yet there are many who 
do not even inquire about these and other diseases, much 
less make investigation such, for example, as a tuber- 
culin test. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SEIvECTION OF DAIRY SIRES. 

The importance of the dairy sire is recognized in the 
expression, "The bull is half the herd." Usually, how- 
ever, the bull is more than half the herd, either for good 
or bad. In the case of common or grade cows, for 
example, the pure-bred bull may count for three-quarters 
or more of the herd, by reason of his greater prepotency. 
To so great an extent does the bull determine the improve- 
ment or deterioration of the herd as to call for the utmost 
caution in his selection, which should be based upon the 
following: (i) purity of breeding; (2) pedigree; (3) 
type; (4) prepotency; and (5) health. 

Purity of Breeding. Under no circumstances should 
anything but pure-bred sires be used. The value of purity 
of breeding has already been discussed under the selection 
of the dairy cow. It should be understood, however, 
that purity of breeding is of greater consequence in bulls 
than in cows, for the reason that improvement in the herd 
is usually expected to be brought about through the dairy 
sire. 

Pedigree. In the case of a dairy bull, especially a 
young bull, his chief value is determined by the perform- 
ance of his ancestry. The points of greatest importance 
to consider in his pedigree are the following: (i) the 
merit of his mother and his sire's mother; (2) the merit 
of the daughters of his sire and grand sire; (3) the 
value of the daughters of his dam and his grand-dam ; 

17 



18 DAIRY FARMING 

(4) the value of his sisters, if he has any; and (5) the 
vakie of his own progeny, if he has any. 

The further back consecutively good records can be 
traced the more valuable the animal. It should always 
be remembered, however, that near ancestors count for 
a great deal more than those more remotely related. 

Type. The external qualities of a good sire are indi- 
cated by a masculine head and neck; bright, prominent 
eyes, far apart; a strong, sinewy jaw; broad muzzle; 
wide open nostrils ; deep, broad chest ; deep, capacious 
barrel; soft, loose, oily hide, of medium thickness; clean 
bone; large rudimentary teats, squarely placed and far 
apart; and a general spareness of flesh, especially in the 
region of the shoulders, thighs, and hips. Indeed, from 
the shoulders backward, the dairy bull should have the 
same general outline as that possessed by the dairy cow. 
He should have a strong, resolute appearance and an 
active style, showing that abundance of vigor so neces- 
sary in a good breeder. 

Prepotency. It has already been stated that this term 
signifies the power which an animal possesses of trans- 
mitting its own qualities to its offspring. The possession 
of this power is of the highest importance in a dairy bull, 
for it matters little how good a pedigree or how fine an 
individuality he may have, if he lacks in the power of 
transmission he is a failure. Prepotency in an animal 
increases with the purity and closeness of breeding, and 
is indicated to some extent by a strong, resolute, vigorous 
appearance, reflecting a strong constitution and an 
abundance of nerve development. 

The full extent, however, to which a sire is prepotent 
can be determined with certainty only from his offspring. 



THE DAIRY HERD 19 

It is for this reason that a middle-aged bull is so much 
more desirable than a young, untried bull. 

A bull with descendants is always the safest animal 
for the purchaser to buy. Nothing can speak more for a 
bull than the satisfactory performance of his oflfspring. 

Health. Everything that has been said with reference 
to health in the selection of cows (p. i6) applies with 
equal force to dairy sires. 



CHAPTER V. 

BUILDING UP A DAIRY HERD. 

I. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED. 
II. STARTING THE HERD. 
III. BREEDING UP THE HERD. 

I. PRINCIPLES INVOIvVED. 

Underlying Law. The success in building up a dairy 
herd depends to a great extent upon one's abiHty to select 
individuals with reference to the points considered in the 
preceding two chapters; that is, the ability to make a 
judicious selection of both males and females. To em- 
phasize more fully the importance of rigid selection it 
should be remembered that all selection is based upon 
the law that "like produces like," or that the offspring 
will be like the parents. The essence of this law is that 
good milkers will produce good milkers and poor milkers 
will produce poor milkers. 

The uniformity with which this law operates is depend- 
ent upon three things : ( i ) purity of breeding ; (2) close- 
ness of blood relationship; and (3) similarity of parents. 

Purity of Breeding. The purer the breeding the 
greater the certainty with which animals will transmit 
their own characteristics to their offspring. See p. 14. 

Closeness of Blood Relationship. The characters of 
parents of the same strain will reappear in the progeny 
with greater regularity than those of parents of different 
strains in the same breed. This fact is recognized in 
in-and-in breeding, which is an attempt to secure and 

20 



THE DAIRY HERD 21 

speedily fix desirable characters by close breeding. In- 
and-in breeding can be practiced with success, however, 
only in the hands of skilled breeders. 

In the case of crossing one breed upon another as, for 
example, a Holstein-Friesian upon a Jersey, it is often 
mistakenly supposed that the progeny of such a cross 
partakes equally of the characters of both parents. This 
may occur in some instances, but more often the ofif spring 
will resemble either one parent or the other, or neither. 
But even where the offspring does partake equally of the 
characters of both parents, such a cross is undesirable 
because the offspring is not capable of transmitting its 
characteristics with any degree of certainty. In the hands 
of the average dairyman transmission in crossing is uncer- 
tain and unsatisfactory, and for this reason crossing 
should not be attempted. 

When a cow of nondescript or promiscuous breeding is 
bred to a pure-bred sire, the progeny will largely partake 
of the characters of the sire, by reason of his greater 
prepotency. With what degree of regularity and to what 
extent this occurs depends upon the degree of prepotency. 
The offspring of a highly prepotent sire and a common or 
native cow will take on nearly all the essential character- 
istics of the sire. In such a case it is plainly seen that the 
sire counts for a great deal more than half the herd. 

In the case of grade cows the influence of the pure- 
bred bull becomes less the closer the grade approaches 
purity of blood. But only in the case where the cows are 
pure-bred, or more strictly of equal prepotency with the 
bull, can it be said that the bull is only half the herd. 

Similarity of Parents. In mating animals it should 
always be remembered that the greater the similarity of all 
their characteristics the greater the certainty of trans- 



22 DAIRY FARMING 

mission. Where animals of great extremes of size, con- 
formation, function, disposition, or nervous organization, 
are mated, somewhat the same results may be looked for 
that are obtained in crossing animals of different breeds. 
Mating animals of highly dissimilar characteristics is 
spoken of as violent mating and should be avoided. 
Where there is much similarity in the parents there is 
usually a satisfactory transmission of qualities and the 
mating is often referred to as good "nicking." 

II. STARTING THE HERD. 

Grade Cows and Pure=bred Sires. With the average 
farmer, the cheapest and most satisfactory way of start- 
ing a dairy herd is to select as foundation stock good 
grade cows and a pure-bred bull of one of the strictly 
dairy breeds. The grading up will be most rapid when 
the predominant blood in the grades corresponds with the 
blood of the sire. 

A foundation of this kind, of course, does not produce 
stock that can be registered, but by continuing the use of 
good, pure-bred bulls of the same blood, stock is soon 
obtained which, so far as milk and butter production is 
concerned, very closely approaches in value that of pure 
^reeding. 

Pure=Bred Cows and Sires. To start with a pure- 
bred herd is practically beyond the means of the ma- 
jority of farmers. Furthermore, there is an objection 
to placing well-cared-for, pure-bred cows under aver- 
age conditions as to feed, care, and management, be- 
cause under any such change the attainment of satis- 
factory results would be practically impossible. Where 
there is a gradual infusion of pure blood, as in the 
case of grading up a herd with pure-bred sires thf 



THE DAIRY HERD 23 

new blood is gradually accustomed to the change of 
environment and the herdsman is given the necessary 
time to change his methods to meet the requirements of 
pure-bred cattle. 

Where the dairyman understands the management 
of pure-bred stock and has the means with which to 
purchase the right kind, a pure-bred herd may be started 
to good advantage. 

One of the chief dangers in starting with a pure- 
bred herd is the lack of funds to procure the right sort 
of animals. Instead of purchasing a pure-bred bull and 
a number of pure-bred cows of common merit, it is better 
policy to buy relatively cheap, grade cows, and to add the 
money thus saved to that originally set aside for the bull. 
This extra money is likely to be the means of securing a 
bull of outstanding merit. 

III. BREEDING UP THE HERD. 

Importance of Sire. Whether the cows be grades or 
pure-breds, it is of the highest importance in building up 
a dairy herd to secure a pure-bred bull of outstanding 
dairy merit. Unless the bull is descended from good milk- 
ers it is folly to expect him to produce good milkers, no 
matter how fine or ideal he may be as an individual. 

It is, furthermore, of importance to remember that a 
herd cannot be successfully built up unless the bulls that 
are successively used belong to the same breed. If the 
grading up is begun with a Jersey bull the process must 
be continued uninterruptedly by the use of Jersey blood. 

In the selection of a herd bull the points discussed in 
the preceding chapter should be carefully considered. 

Selecting the Best Calves. With a first-class bull at 
the head of the herd, rapid improvement is effected by 



24 DAIRY FARMING 

selecting and retaining calves from only the best milkers, 
at the same time culling out those cows whose records 
have not been satisfactory. This work cannot be done to 
best advantage unless records are kept of the quantity 
and quality of milk from each cow for a whole lactation 
period, as discussed in chapter IX. 

Buying Cows, Where all of the cows in the founda- 
tion stock are grades, none of the calves, of course, can 
be registered. It is desirable, therefore, to add to the 
herd from time to time, as means permit, some good 
pure-bred cows of the same blood as the bulls that have 
been used. This has the advantage of enabling the owner 
to dispose of his calves to better advantage. 

The purchase of cows, however, is always attended with 
the danger of introducing contagious diseases into the 
herd, especially tuberculosis and contagious abortion. 
For this reason the purchasing of cows should be carried 
on in a limited way only. It is, of course, always in order 
to buy cows when the object is to add to the herd pure- 
bred individuals of exceptional dairy merit. But the 
practice of buying cows should never be carried to the 
point of making it the principal means of replenishing the 
herd, especially since the latter can be accomplished 
much more satisfactorily by raising the calves from the 
best cows. 



CHAPTER VI. 

BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE. 

JERSEY CATTLE. 

The native home of this breed is the Island of Jersey, 
situated otf the coast of France, and comprising 28,717 




26 



DAIRY FARMING 



acres. The climate is very mild and healthful, and the 
soil is very productive. Here the Jersey cattle have been 
bred pure for a number of centuries. 



'— 'f^ 




Characteristics. The color of Jerseys is usually some 
shade of fawn. Cream, dun and yellow are common, and 
these are frequently mixed with white. In form Jerseys 



THE DAIRY HERD 



27 



are spare, possessing a rather large barrel, a refined head 
and neck, and fine, clean-cut limbs. In size they are small 
to medium, the average weight of cows being probably 
somewhat less than 900 pounds. The quantity of milk 
produced by Jerseys is, as a rule, not very large, but the 
milk is very rich, making them excellent butter producers. 
The color of the milk and butter is a pleasing, rich yellow. 

GUERNSEY CATTLE. 

The native home of this breed is the Island of Guern- 
sey, situated near the Island of Jersey, and, like it, is one 




Fig. 4.— Typical Guernsey Bull. Benjamin. 

of the group of islands known as the Channel Islands. In 
size the Island of Guernsey ranks next to that of Jersey. 
Its climate is very mild and healthful and the soil is pro- 



28 



DAIRY FARMING 



ductive. Guernsey cattle have been bred pure for a long 
period of time. 

Characteristics. Guernsey cattle are larger, stronger 
in frame and constitution, and in general more rugged 
than Jerseys. A noted characteristic of this breed is the 
very rich, yellov^ color of the milk and skin. Their pre- 
dominant color is a reddish fawn, with more or less white 




Fig. 5.— Typical Guernsey Cow. Dolly Dimple. 



markings. Colors bordering on a yellowish or brownish 
fawn with white markings, are also common. The 
cows average probably somewhat more than i,ooo pounds 
in weight. They average a fairly large yield of milk, 
which is practically as rich as that produced by Jerseys. 
Guernseys are also noted for their quiet, gentle disposi- 
tion. 



THB DAIRY HERD 



29 



HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 

The native home of this breed is Holland, where it 
has existed for many centuries. The low, level, rich lands 
reclaimed from the sea, furnish an abundance of grazing 




30 



DAIRY FARMING 



and have given rise to a large breed of cattle. The winters 
of Holland are rather cold but not severe. 

Characteristics. The Holstein-Friesian cattle are 
white and black in color, have large, strong frames, and 




easily stand at the head in size and quantity of milk 
yielded. The average weight of the cows approxi- 
mates 1,300 pounds. While noted for their phenomenal 
milk yields, the milk averages rather low in per cent of 



THE DAIRY HERD 



31 



butterfat, being lower than that of any other dairy breed. 
The udders and milk veins in this breed are conspicuously 
large. The shoulders are rather prominent and the hind 
quarters as a rule, are rather thick and straight. 

AYRSHIRE CATTLE. 

The native home of this breed is Ayr county, Scot- 
land, from which place the breed derives its name. The 




pastures are good, but the climate is rather severe and 
rough, giving this breed a high degree of hardiness. 



32 



DAIRY FARMING 



Characteristics. The Ayrshire cattle are a rather 
hardy, rugged breed, of medium size, the average weight 
being about i,ooo pounds. They have a deep capacious 
barrel, and the hind quarters are inclined to be fleshy. 
In color they may be red, white, or brown, or a mixture of 
these, each color being well defined. The cows give a 
good yield of milk containing an average per cent of 
butterfat. Their udders possess a high state of perfection. 




CHAPTER VII. 

FEEDING THE DAIRY COW. 

I. PRINCIPLKS OF FEEDING. 
II. PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 
III. FEEDING TABLES. 

I. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 

No phase of the dairy industry has received so much 
attention in recent years as that relating to the principles 
and practice of feeding. We have come to learn that 
certain underlying principles must be observed if any- 
thing like a full measure of success is to be achieved. 
The first lesson of the student in stock feeding concerns 
itself with the following particulars regarding feeds : ( i ) 
composition; (2) digestibility; (3) succulence and pal- 
atability ; (4) proportion of nitrogenous and non-nitro- 
genous nutrients; (5) proportion of roughage* and con- 
centratesf ; and (6) fertilizing constituents. 

Composition. A knowledge of the composition of 
feeds is necessary for two reasons : First, to enable the 
feeder to determine t'.ie relative value of the feeds at his 
disposal ; and secondly, to assist in determining what 
quantity of feed is necessary to supply the required 
amount of nutrients. 

In studying the composition of feeds we must first of 
all familiarize ourselves with three important groups of 



♦Roughage includes the coarser and less nutritious feeds, such as hay, 
straw, corn fodder, corn silage, etc. 

tConcentrates include the more nutritious feeds, such as corn, wheat bran, 
cotton seed meal, etc. 

33 



34 



DAIRY FARMING 



nutrients found in all feed stufifs; namely, protein, car- 
bohydrates and ether extract. 

Protein is the nitrogenous part of feeds and is by far 
the most valuable of the different groups of nutrients 
Its characteristic element is nitrogen. The white of egg 
is almost pure protein. Cottonseed meal and linseed 
meal are very rich in protein, and so are leguminous hays, 
such as clover, alfalfa and cowpea hay. 

Carbohydrates contain no nitrogen but are made up 
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, containing the latter 
two elements in the proportion to form water. Sugar and 
starch are almost pure carbohydrates. Crude fiber is 
another carbohydrate, which constitutes the woody, fibrous 
part of plants. 

Ether extract is the part of feeds extracted by means 
of ether, and consists largely of fats or oils. This group 
of nutrients bears a close similarity to carbohydrates, 
both in composition and in function ; but owing to its 
higher carbon content, its fuel value is 2.25 times that of 
carbohydrates. Cotton seed and flax seed are very rich 
in ether extract. 

Dry matter, as the term signifies, is the feed minus its 
water. 

The variation in nutrients in different feeds is illus- 
trated in the following table : 

TABLE I. Showing variation in nutrients in different 
feeds. 



Feed. 



Wheat bran 

Cottonseed meal 

Corn 

Corn silage 

Corn stover 

Clover hay ( red) 



Total nutrients in 100 pounds. 



Dry 








matter in 


Protein. 


Carbo- 


Ether 


100 pounds. 


Lbs. 


hydrates. 


extract. 






Lbs. 


Lbs. 


88.1 


15.4 


62.9 


4.0 


91.8 


42.3 


29.2 


13.1 


89.4 


10.3 


72.6 


6.0 


20.9 


1 7 


17.0 


0.8 


59 5 


3 8 


52.2 


11 


84.7 


12 3 


62.9 


3.3 



THE DAIRY HERD 



35 



The table shows that feeds differ very widely in the 
amount of nutrients they contain, especially in protein, 
the most valuable portion of feeds. 

Digestibility. While the total nutrients give some 
idea as to the relative value of different feeds, it is of far 
greater importance to know the total digestible nutrients 
as determined by actual digestion experiments with 
animals. That feeds differ widely in degree of digest- 
ibility is shown hi the following table which contains the 
same list of feeds given in Table I. 

TABLE II. Showing variation in the digestibility of 
different feeds. 





Dry 
matter in 
100 pounds. 


Total digestible nutrients in 
100 pounds. 


Feed. 


Protein. 
Lbs. 


Carbo- 
bydrates. 

Lbs. 


Ether 
extract. 

Lbs. 


Wheat bran 


88.1 
91.8 
89.1 
20.9 
59.5 
84.7 


12.2 
37 2 
7.9 
0.9 
1.7 
6.8 


39.2 
16.9 
66.7 
11.3 
32 4 
35.8 


2.7 


Cottonseed meal 


12.2 


Corn 


4.3 


Corn silage 

Corn stover 

Clover hay ( red ) 


0.7 
0.7 
1.7 



Comparing this table with Table I, we note that the 
digestibility of the protein, for example, in corn stover, 
clover hay and cottonseed meal is 44%, 55% and 
88% respectively. These figures suffice to show the need 
of knowing, not so much the total nutrients, as the total 
digestible nutrients in feed stuffs. 

Succulence and Palatability. The amount of digest- 
ible nutrients does not always measure the feeding value 



36 DAIRY FARMING 

of feed stuffs. Palatability must also be considered. 
Moreover, experience has amply demonstrated that for 
best results in milk production, a certain amount of suc- 
culent feed must be fed as a part of the ration. Corn 
silage, which is so highly prized by dairymen, probably 
owes its high rank as a dairy feed nearly as much to its 
succulence and palatability as to the nutrients which it 
contains. 

Proportion of Nitrogenous to Non=Nitrogenous 
Nutrients. In the production of milk, only the protein 
or nitrogenous part of the feed can be utilized for the 
production of the protein or nitrogenous part of the milk. 
The non-nitrogenous constituents of the milk are largely, 
if not entirely, produced from the non-nitrogenous con- 
stituents of the feed, namely, the carbohydrates and ether 
extract. 

From this it must be obvious that the best results in 
feeding can be obtained only from a proper balancing of 
the nutrients fed. Moreover, since the different nutrients 
are largely to be converted into milk, it is evident also 
that the quantity which can be advantageously fed must 
be gauged by the quantity and quality of milk produced. 
Hence feeders have come to adopt what is known as 
balanced rations or feeding standards. 

Feeding Standards. These refer to the amount of 
digestible nutrients required per i,ooo pounds of live 
weight in twenty-four hours. They recognize that the 
nutrients fed must be in proportion to the quantity and 
quality of milk yielded. This is shown by the Wolff- 
Lehman standards presented in the following table : 



THE DAIRY HERD 



37 



TABLE III. Showing Wolff-Lehman feeding stand- 
ards. 





Daily milk 

yield. 
Average 
quality. 

Lbs. 


Dry 
matter. 

Lbs. 


Digestible nutrients per 1,000 
pounds live weight. 


Ration. 


Protein. 
Lbs. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Lbs. 


Ether 
extract. 

Lbs. 


No.l 


11.0 
16.6 
22.0 
27.5 


25 
27 
29 
32 


1.6 

2.0 
2.5 
3.3 


10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 


0.3 


No. 2 


0.4 


No. 3 


0.5 


No. 4 


0.8 







The standard that has generally been used as a guide 
by feeders is that for ration No. 3. Researches during 
recent years have shown, however, that the Wolff-Leh- 
man standard calls for too much protein. These re- 
searches make it quite clear that the amount of protein 
required for 22 pounds of average quality milk is 
nearer two pounds than two and a half pounds, and until 
the matter is definitely settled, it may be well to adopt 
two and one-fourth pounds of protein as the standard 
for the milk yield referred to. 

Feeding Standards as Guides. Standards for bal- 
anced rations should always be used with considerable 
flexibility. They should be looked upon only as guides 
and as such are exceedingly useful. Every practical 
feeder knows that the influence of individuality counts for 
much in the feeding of dairy cattle. A ration that may be 
satisfactory for one cow may not be suited to another. 

We have also to consider the source of the nutrients. 
It is known that the digestible nutrients in coarse feeds 
yield smaller returns, pound for pound, than those in 



38 DAIRY FARMING 

grains. Then again the matter of proportioning the 
quantity of nutrients to the weight of the animal can at 
best give only approximate results. The actual milk and 
butterfat production must always remain the principal 
factor in determining the quantity of nutrients required 
by the dairy cow. 

Calculating Rations. By a ration is meant the amount 
of feed required by an animal in twenty-four hours. 
The method of compounding rations consists in selecting 
from the feeds at our disposal such quantities as will con- 
tain the amount of nutrients called for by the standard. 
To illustrate, let us make up a ration for a cow yielding 
daily 22 pounds of milk of average quality, using the 
Wolff-Lehman standard (p. 37). The feeds at our dis- 
posal are wheat bran, cottonseed meal, corn meal, corn 
silage, corn stover and clover hay. 

By a number of trial calculations we find that the 
required nutrients are obtained by selecting 9 lbs. of 
wheat bran, 4 lbs. of corn, i lb. of cottonseed meal, 5 lbs. 
of corn stover, 5 lbs. of clover hay and 30 lbs. of corn 
silage. The calculation is made from Table II (p. 35) in 
the manner shown below : 



Protein in 9 lbs. bran 
Protein in 1 lb. cotton seed meal 
Protein in 4 lbs. corn 
Protein in 30 lbs. corn silage 
Protein in 5 lbs. corn stover 
Protein in 5 lbs. clover hay 



Amt. in 




100 lbs. 




^ 12.2 X .09 


= 1.098 lbs. 


= 37.2 X .01 


= 0.372 lbs. 


= 7.9 X .04 


= 0.316 lbs. 


= 0.9 X .30 


= 0.270 lbs. 


= 1.7 X .05 


-= 0.085 lbs. 


= 6.8 X .05 


= 0.340 lbs. 


Total protein 
Standard 


= 2.481 lbs. 
= 2.50 lbs. 



THE DAIRY HERD 39 

Amt. in 

100 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in lbs. bran = 39.2 x .09 = 3.528 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 1 lb. c. s. meal = 16.9 x .01 = 0.169 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 4 lbs. corn = 66.7 x .04 = 2.668 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 30 lbs. corn silage = 11.3 x .30 = 3.390 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 5 lbs. corn stover = 32.4 x .05 = 1.620 lbs. 

Carbohydrates in 5 lbs. clover hay = 35.8 x .05 = 1.790 lbs. 



Total carbohydrates =13.165 lbs. 

Standard =13.00 lbs. 

Amt. in 

100 lbs. 

Ether extract in 9 lbs. bran = 2.7 x .09 = 0.243 lbs. 

Ether extract in 1 lb. c. s. meal = 12.2 x .01 = 0.122 lbs. 

Ether extract in 4 lbs. corn = 4.3 x .04 = 0.172 lbs. 

Ether extract in 30 lbs. corn silage = 0.7 x .30 = 0.210 lbs. 

Ether extract in 5 lbs. corn stover = 0.7 x .05 = 0.035 lbs. 

Ether extract in 5 lbs. clover hay = 1.7 x .05 = 0.085 lbs. 



Total ether extract = 0.867 lbs. 
Standard = 0.50 lbs. 

To make the above calculation perfectly plain it should 
be noted that the table on page 35 says that 100 lbs. of 
bran contain 12.2 lbs. of protein. If 100 lbs. contain 12.2 
lbs., 9 lbs. of bran will contain nine hundredths of 12.2 
lbs. or .09 X 12.2, which equals 1.098 lbs. of protein. The 
method is the same in the remaining computations. 

Nutritive Ratio. In speaking of rations, the terms 
"wide" ration and "narrow" ration are frequently used. 
The terms refer to the proportion of nitrogenous to non- 
nitrogenous matter in the ration. This proportion is 
spoken of as the nutritive ratio, which is obtained by 
dividing the digestible carbohydrates plus 2.25 (heat 
equivalent of carbohydrates) times the digestible ether 



40 DAIRY FARMING 

extract, by the digestible protein. In the ration calculated 
above the nutritive ratio equals 13.17 + (2.25 X -87) -f- 
2.48 = 6.1 ; that is the nutritive ratio in this case is i :6.i. 

When the amount of nitrogenous matter is small as 
compared with the non-nitrogenous matter, the ration is 
said to be "wide." When the reverse is true, the ration 
is said to be "narrow." 

Proportion of Roughage and Concentrates. Accord- 
ing to our feeding standard, a cow yielding 22 pounds of 
milk requires a ration containing 16 pounds of digestible 
nutrients and a total of 29 pounds of dry matter (digest- 
ible and indigestible). This amount of dry matter means 
that the ration must have a fairly definite bulk. Where 
the ration contains a great deal of rich concentrates in 
proportion to roughage, it is apt to lack in bulk. On the 
other hand a ration containing a large proportion of corn 
stover, oat straw and similar roughage, is likely to make 
the ration so bulky as to make it impossible for a heavy 
producer to consume enough of it to obtain the required 
nutrients. 

In the ration calculated on page 38 the proportion of 
roughage and concentrates is about right. Under average 
conditions a cow yielding 22 pounds of milk should have 
a ration composed of about two-thirds roughage and one- 
third concentrates. For greater yields it is best, as a 
rule, to increase only the concentrates to meet the require- 
ments of the additional flow of milk, thus making the pro- 
portion of concentrates to roughage greater the larger 
the yield of milk. 

Fertilizing Constituents of Feed. These are nitro- 
gen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Feeds rich in these 
constituents will produce manure correspondingly rich 
in them. In the selection of feeds, therefore, some atten- 



THE DAIRY HERD 



41 



tion should be given to their manurial value, especially 
since feeds differ so widely in this respect. 

An illustration of the extent to which feeds differ in 
their fertilizing or manurial constituents is given in the 
following table, which shows the amount of nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid and potash contained in corn and cotton 
seed meal. The table also shows the value of these con- 
stituents, which was obtained by rating the nitrogen at 
15 cents per pound, and the phosphoric acid and potash 
at 4^2 cents per pound. 

TABLE IV. Showing fertilizing constituents in 
corn and cottonseed meal. 





Fertilizing constituents in one ton. 


Feed. 


Nitrogen. 
Lbs. 


Phos- 
phoric 

acid. 

Lbs. 


Potash. 
Lbs. 


Total 
value. 


Corn 


36.4 
136.8 


14.0 
57.6 


8.0 
17.4 


$6.45 


Cotton seed meal 


23.75 







The table shows that the fertilizing value of a ton of 
cottonseed meal exceeds that of a ton of corn by $17.30, 
an amount that certainly must appeal to the man who is 
dairying on a business basis. 



II. PRACTICE OF FEEDING. 

Frequency of Feeding. The main part of the ration 
should be supplied in two feeds ; one in the morning and 
the other in the late afternoon. It is desirable to feed 
some dry roughage at noon, especially when the roughage 
in the morning and evening consists of silage. The cow, 



42 DAIRY FARMING 

on account of her large store room, the paunch, is ca- 
pable of storing up a large quantity of feed and, therefore, 
does not require as many feeds as some other farm 
animals. 

Order of Feeding Concentrates and Roughage. As 
a rule it is best to feed the concentrates just previous to 
milking and the roughage immediately thereafter. The 
grain helps to attract the cows to their stalls, and, by feed- 
ing the roughage after milking, we avoid tainting the milk 
with undesirable odors when the roughage contains these. 
When corn silage, for example, is fed immediately before 
milking, its odor is always perceptible in the milk. When 
fed after milking, the odor is never detected. It is 
believed also that feeding the concentrates by themselves 
will result in a more thorough mixing of saliva with 
them and thus increase their digestibility. Furthermore, 
a great deal of dust can be avoided by feeding the rough- 
age after milking, particularly when the roughage con- 
sists of hay or dry fodder. 

A prevailing opinion that heavy concentrates will form 
an injurious, pasty mass in the cow's stomach does not 
seem to be well founded. When the concentrates are fed 
directly before milking and the roughage directly after, 
there will be sufficient mixing in the paunch before the 
contents pass into the stomach proper. The author for 
several years, has successfully followed the practice of 
feeding concentrates and roughage separately when the 
former consisted of as much as five pounds of cotton- 
seed meal per day. 

Feeding Before and After Calving. Toward the 
close of the lactation period, the grain ration should be 
gradually reduced, either because of the reduced flow of 
milk, or on account of the desirability of drying up the 



THE DAIRY HERD 43 

cow so that she may have a month's rest before calving. 
It should be remembered, however, that even while the 
cow goes dry she still requires nutritious feed to properly 
nourish the foetus within her. The requirements as to 
feed at this time call for plenty of succulent roughage, 
and some grain which is rich in ash and protein, at the 
same time laxative in character. 

If the cow is feeding on good pasture the grain may 
be entirely withheld a month previous to calving. Indeed, 
if pasture is luxurious, it is desirable to restrict the time 
during which she is allowed to graze lest she overfeed 
and invite milk fever. When no pasture is available, a 
ration consisting of corn silage, good hay and about four 
pounds of grain will answer very satisfactorily. A desir- 
able grain ration is made up of linseed meal, wheat bran 
and ground oats, using these feeds in the proportion of 
about one pound of linseed meal and one and a half 
pounds each of bran and oats. This ration not only sup- 
plies the proper nutrients for the development of the 
foetus, but owing to its laxativeness, keeps the cow in 
the best physical condition. 

A few days before and after calving the grain is pref- 
erably supplied in the form of a warm mash. Warm 
water should also be freely supplied at this time. Three 
to six days after calving the grain should be gradually 
increased until the maximum amount consistent with 
economical production has been supplied. 

If the cow has been properly nurtured previous to 
calving, she will have stored up a considerable amount of 
reserve material which she draws on immediately after 
calving, thus making a heavy grain ration at this time 
not only not desirable but entirely unnecessary. 

Feeding Silage. The cheapest and most satisfactory 



44 DAIRY FARMING 

roughage that can be produced upon most farms, is corn 
silage. Its succulence and palatability make it an ideal 
feed for milk production. This feed should be available 
upon the farm the larger portion of the year. In winter 
it takes the place of summer pasturage; during the late 
summer and fall it is needed to supplement the shortage 
of pasturage which usually occurs about this time. 

An average cow in full flow of milk will consume 40 
pounds of silage daily to good advantage. This amount 
of silage combined with 8 or 10 pounds of dry fodder or 
hay makes a good combination of roughage for a dairy 
cow. 

Feeding Grain. It should be remembered that silage 
contains a large amount of water, and where this feed 
constitutes the main part of the roughage of the ration, 
a considerable amount of grain must be fed to supply the 
required nutrients of a heavy milk producer. The 
amount of concentrates to be fed is, of course, largely 
dependent upon the amount of milk and butterfat pro- 
duced by the cow. 

Water. An abundance of pure water is a prime neces- 
sity with a dairy cow. This is to be expected from the 
fact that milk is largely composed of water. Where cows 
have no access to flowing water, they should be watered 
regularly morning and night ; and during hot weather a 
third watering at noon is desirable. The fact that milk is 
composed so largely of water should emphasize the im- 
portance of supplying only pure water. We may reason- 
ably expect the same bad effect on the health of the cow 
and the flavor of the milk from stale, impure water which 
is noticeable from the feeding of stale, odoriferous feeds. 

Salt. Cows should have daily access to all the salt they 



THE DAIRY HERD 46 

care to lick. Either common granular salt or rock salt 
will answer the purpose satisfactorily. 

Feeding According to Flow. In the economical pro- 
duction of milk, it is absolutely essential to feed cows 
according to their productive capacity. Just what this 
productive capacity is can be determined only by keeping 
a careful account of the feed consumed and the. milk and 
butterfat yielded by each cow individually. Such a 
record will soon show to what extent cows will profitably 
respond to the feed given them. 

Importance of Feeding a Full Ration. According to 
the German feeding standard, a cow weighing i,oo3 
pounds requires for body maintenance 0.7 pound of 
digestible protein, 8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates 
and 0.1 pound of digestible ether extract. This shows 
that about half the nutrients called for in a ration for an 
average milker are used to sustain the body so that it 
will neither gain nor lose in weight ; the other half being 
used to form milk. Returns for feed can, therefore, be 
expected only from about 50% of the total nutrients 
required by the cow. This means that a cow on a full 
ration will yield practically twice as much milk as she 
would on three-fourths of a ration. Yet there are thou- 
sands of dairymen who fail to supply the last quarter 
of a ration and thus bring ruin upon themselves and 
their business. 

III. TABLE GIVING COMPOSITION OF FEEDS. 

At the beginning, it was stated that a knowledge of the 
composition of feeds was necessary for two reasons: 
First, to enable the feeder to determine the relative value 
of the feeds at his disposal ; and second, to assist in deter- 
mining what quantity of feed is necessary to supply the 



46 



DAIRY FARMING 



required nutrients. To afford the feeder as wide a choice 
as possible, a long table of feeds is herewith presented, 
showing not only the digestible, organic nutrients, but 
also the fertilizing constituents. This table is taken from 
Henry's "Feeds and Feeding," by permission of the 
author. 

TABLE V. Average digestible nutrients and fertiliz- 
ing constituents in American feeding stuffs. 





I 

d 

u 
« . 

a§ 

Q 
Lbs. 

89.1 
89.4 
88.7 
91.2 
89.3 
84.9 
90.9 
91.8 
89.6 
91.8 
94 8 


Digestible 

nutrients in IOC 

pounds. 


Fertilizing 

constituents in 

1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


'S 

2 

Lbs- 

7.9 

7.8 

8.0 

8.8 

0.4 

4.4 

7.4 

25.8 

9.0 

11.4 

26.7 

7.5 

30.3 

18.7 

20.4 


|H 

o 

Lbs. 

66.7 
66.7 
66.2 
63.7 
62.6 
60.0 
59.8 
43.3 
61.2 
68.4 
38.8 
65.2 
35.3 
61.7 
48.4 


u O 

■a^ 
Lbs 

4.3 
4.8 
4.8 
7.0 
0.8 
2.9 
4.6 

11.0 
6.2 
6.6 

12.4 
6.8 
4.6 

18.7 
8.8 


a 
2 

■r-H 

!? 
Lbs. 

18.2 
16.6 
16.8 
18 6 
5.0 
14.1 
16.3 
60.3 
26.6 
22.4 
49.8 
16.3 
57.7 
36.3 
38.4 


o 
'C 
o 
.d . 

Ph 

Lbs. 


si 

CO 

1 

Lbs. 


Concentrates. 

Corn, all analyses 

Dent corn 


7.0 


4.0 


T<"lint rnrn 






Sweet corn 






Corn cob 


.6 

5.7 
12.1 
3.3 
8.0 
7.0 
6.1 
9.8 

' 4.1 
4.1 


6 


Corn and cob meal 

Corn bran 


4.7 
6 8 


Gluten meal 

Germ meal 


0.6 
5 


Starch refuse 


5 2 




1 6 


Hominy chops 


88.9 
91.9 
93.2 
92.2 


4 9 


Glucose meal 

Sugar meal 


'6"3 


Gluten feed 


0.3 



THE DAIRY HERD 



47 



Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents- C<7«. 





8 

a 
Lbs. 


Digestible 

nutrients in 100 

pounds. 


Fertilizing 

constituents in 

1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


s 
■£ 

2 

Lbs 


^ 

O 

Lbs. 


5- 

Lbs. 


be 

s 

Lbs. 


S 

Lbs. 


I 
Lbs 


Wheat 


89.6 
87.6 
87.6 
90.3 
88.1 
88.6 
87.7 
88.2 
87.9 
88.4 

88.4 
88.4 
90.7 

89.1 
89.8 
24.3 
91.8 

89.0 
92.1 
92.3 
98 6 


10.2 

8.9 

8.2 

13.6 

12.2 

12.9 

12.3 

12.2 

12.8 

9.8 

9.9 
11.6 
11.9 

8.7 
18.6 

3.9 
16.7 

9.2 

11.5 

12.6 

8.9 

1.3 

4.8 
1.6 
5.3 

9.0 

7.7 

2.1 

7.4 

21.1 

22.0 


69.2 
62.4 
62 7 
61.3 
39.2 
40.1 
37.1 
60.0 
63.0 
51.0 

67.6 
60.3 
46.1 

66.6 

37.1 

9.8 

36.3 

47.3 
62.1 
46.9 
38.4 
40.1 

72.2 
44.5 
45.1 
66.4 

49.2 
27.9 
30.4 
33.6 


1.7 
0.9 
0.9 
2 
2.7 
3.4 
2.6 
8.8 
3.4 
2.2 

1.1 
2.0 
1.6 

1.6 
1.7 
1.4 
6.1 

4.2 

6.9 
2.8 
5.1 
0.6 

0.3 
0.6 
7.3 
6.6 

1.8 
0.6 
1.9 
6 6 


23.6 

18.9 
28.9 
31.8 
26.7 


7.9 

2.2 

5.6 

21.4 

28.9 


6 n 


High-grade flour 


1 6 


Low-grade flour 


8 5 


Dark feeding flour 


10 9 


Wheat bran 


16 1 


Wheat bran, spring wheat 










Wheat shorts 


28.2 
26.3 
24.4 

17.6 
23.2 
18.4 

16.1 

35 5 

8.9 

36.2 

20.6 
28.6 
17.2 
21.6 
6.2 

10.8 
6.8 
7 1 

19.7 

14.4 

4.9 

36.4 


13.5 

9.5 

11.7 

8.2 
22.8 
12.6 

7.9 
14 3 

3.1 
10.8 

8.2 


5 9 


Wheat middlings 


6 8 


Wheat screenings 


8 4 


Rve 


5,4 


Rye bran 


14 


Rye shorts 

Barley 


8.1 
4 8 


Malt sprouts 


16 3 


Brewers' grains, wet 


6 


Brewers grains, dried 


9 


Oats 


6 9, 


Oat meal 






9.1 


5 8 


Oat dust 




Oat hulls ■ 

Rice 


90.6 

87.6 
91.8 
90 3 


2.4 

1.8 

1.7 

2.9 

26.7 

4.4 

0,7 

17.8 


5.2 
9 


Rice hulls 


1 4 


Rice bran 


2 4 


Rice polish 


90.0 

87.4 
86 8 
89.5 
88.9 
87.3 


7 1 


Buckwheat 


2 1 


Buckwheat hulls 


5 2 


Buckwheat bran 


12 8 






Buckwheat middlings 


33.41 6.4 


42.8 


21.9 


n 4 











48 DAIRY FARMING 

Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-Cc«. 



Name of feed. 



Sorghum seed 

Broom-corn seed. 

Kaffir corn 

Millet 



Flax seed 

Linseed meal, old process. . 
Linseed meal, new process. 

Cotton seed 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed hulls , 

Cocoanut meal 

Palm-nut meal 

Sunflower seed 

Sunflower-seed cakes 

Peanut meal 

Rape-seed meal 



Peas 

Soja ( soy) bean 

Cowpea 

Horse bean. 

Roughage. 

Fodder corn. 

Fodder corn, green 

Fodder corn, field-cured. , 
Corn stover, field-cured. . . 

Fresh grass. 

Pasture grasses (mixed), 

Kentucky blue grass 

Timothy, different stages. 
Orchard grass, in bloom . . 

Redtop, in bloom 

Oat fodder 



S 



Lbs 



87.2 
85.9 
84.8 




Digestible 

nutrients in 100 

pounds. 



0^ 
Lbs 



7.0 
7.4 
7.8 
8.9 



.5 
89.2 

85.2 
85.7 



20 

57.8 

59.5 



20.0 
34.9 
38.4 
27.0 
34.7 
37.8 



20.6 
29.3 
28.2 
12.6 
37.2 
0.3 
15.6 
16.0 
12.1 
31.2 
42.9 22 
25.2 23 



■r ID 



O 



Fertilizing 

constituents in 

1,000 pounds. 



Lbs. Lbs. 



52.1 

48.3 
67.1 
45.0 



16.8 
29.6 
18.3 



22.4 49.3 



1.0 
2.5 
1.7 



2.5 
3.0 
1.2 
1.5 
2.1 
2.6 



51.8 
22.3 
54.2 



3.1 

2.9 
2 7 
3.2 

29.0 

7.0 

2.8 

17.3 

12.2 

1.7 

10.6 

9.0 

29.0 

12.8 

6 9 

7.5 

0.7 

14.4 

1.1 

1.2 



0.4 
1.2 

0.7 



0.5 
0.8 
6 
0.5 
6 
1.0 



Lbs 



14.8 
16.3 



20.4 

36.1 
54.3 

57.8 
31.3 
67.9 
6.9 
32.8 
26.9 
22.8 
65.5 
75.6 
49.6 

30.8 
63 
33.3 
40.7 



4.1 

17.6 
10.4 



9.1 



P.'O 
O a 



Lbs. 



Lbs. 



4.2 



5 3.6 



13.9 
16.6 
18.3 
12.7 
28.8 
2.5 
16.0 
11 
12,2 
21.5 
13.1 
20.0 

8.2 

18.7 



10.3 

13.7 

13.9 

11.7 

8.7 

10.2 

24.0 

5.0 

5.6 

11.7 

15.0 

13.0 

9 9 
19.0 



4.8 
4.3 

'4'. 9 



12.0 



1.5 
5.4 

2.9 

2.3 



1.6 
°l!3 



12.9 



3.3 

8.9 

14.0 



7.5 



2.6 7.6 



7.6 



THE DAIRY HERD 



49 



Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing const ituents.-Ctf'«. 



Name of feed. 



Rye fodder 

Sorghum 

Meadow fescue, in bloom... 

Hungarian grass 

Green barley 

Peas and oats 

Peas and barley 

Hay. 

Timothy 

Orchard grass 

Redtop 

Kentucky blue grass 

Hungarian grass 

Mixed grasses 

Rowen ( mixed) 

Meadow fescue 

Soja-bean hay 

Oat hay 

Marsh or swamp hay 

Marsh or swamp hay 

White daisy 

Straw. 

Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat chaff 

Oat chaff 

Fresh legtimes. 

Red clover, different stages 

Alsike, bloom 

Crimson clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja bean 



u 0< 
P 

Lbs 



91.1 
.4 
92.1 

85 



90.4 

92 

90 

85 
85 
85.7 

29 
25 
19.1 

28 

16.4 

24.9 



Digestible 

nutrients in 100 

pounds. 



Lbs. 



2.1 

0.6 

1.5 

2.0 

1.9 

1 

1.7 

2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.8 
4.5 
5.9 
7.9 
4.2 
10.8 
4.3 
2.4 
3.5 
3 

0.4 
0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.3 
1.5 



2.9 

2.7 

2.4 

8.9 

1 

3.2 



•¥ (11 






Lbs. 



14.1 
12.2 
16.8 
16.0 
10.2 
7.1 
7.2 



36.3 
40.6 
38.6 
41.2 
23.3 
33.0 



14.8 
13.1 

9.1 
12 

8.7 
11.0 



1) ce 

Lbs. 



0.4 
4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 

1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
2.0 
1.3 
1.2 
1.5 
1.7 
1.5 
1.5 
0.9 
0.7 
1.2 



0.4 
0.4 

0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.7 

0.7 
0.6 
0.5 

0.5 
0.2 
0.5 



Fertilizing 

constituents in 

1,000 pounds. 



Lbs. 

3.3 
2.3 



3.9 



12.6 
13.1 
11.5 
11.9 
12.0 
14.1 
16.1 
9.9 
23.2 



5.9 

4.6 

6.2 

13.1 

7.9 



5.3 
4.4 
4.3 

7.2 
2.7 
2.9 



OS 



1.5 

0.9 



1.6 



5.3 
4.1 
3.6 
4.0 
3.5 
2.7 
4.3 
4.0 
6.7 



1.2 

2.8 
2.0 
3.0 
7.0 



Lbs. 

7.3 
2.3 



6.5 



9.0 
18.8 
10.2 
15.7 
13.0 
15.5 
14.9 
21.0 
10.8 



5.1 

7.9 

12.4 

20.9 

4.2 



1.3 

1 

1.3 

1.3 

1.0 

1.5 



4.6 
2.0 
4.9 
5.6 
3.1 
5.3 



50 



DAIRY FARMING 



Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents.-Cc«. 





8 
.9 

u 

(U 

11 

Lbs 


Digestible 

nutrients in 100 

pounds. 


Fertilizing 

constituents in 

1,000 pounds. 


Name of feed. 


g 
I 

Oh 

Lbs. 


O 
Lbs. 


u O 

Lbs 


a 
11) 

2 

Lbs. 


o 
o 

Lbs. 


1 

Lbs 


Legume hay and straw. 
Red clover, medium 


84.7 
78.8 
90.3 
90.3 
90.4 
91.6 
89.3 
89.9 
86.4 

20.9 
28.0 
23.9 
27.5 
32.0 
20.7 
25.8 
21.0 
24.0 

21.1 
13.0 
13.5 
9.1 
9.5 
11.4 
11.4 
11.7 
20.0 


6.8 

5.7 

8.4 

11.5 

10.5 

11.0 

10.8 

2.3 

4.3 

0.9 
2.0 
0.6 
3.0 
1.9 
1.5 
2.7 
1.6 
1.6 

0.9 
1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
1.6 


35.8 
32.0 
42.5 
42.2 
34.9 
39.6 
38.6 
40.0 
32.3 

11.3 

13.5 

14.9 

8.5 

13.4 

8.6 

8.7 

9.2 

13.0 

16.3 

8.8 
10.2 
5.4 
7.2 
8.1 
7 8 
11 9 


1.7 
1 9 
1.5 
1.5 
1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
0.8 

0.7 
1.0 
0.2 
1.9 
1.6 
0.9 
1.3 
0.7 
0.7 

0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 


20.7 
22.3 
23.4 
27.5 
20.5 
21.9 
19.5 
17.5 
14.3 

2.8 


3.8 

5.5 
6.7 
5.2 
4.0 
5.1 
5.2 
4.0 
3.5 

1.1 


•?? 


Red clover, mammoth 

Alsike clover. 


12.2 
9p, 3 


White clover 


18 1 


Crimson clover 


18 1 


Alfalfa 


16 8 


Cowpea 


14 7 


Soja-bean straw 


13 9, 


Pea-vine straw 


10 9, 


Silage. 
Corn 


3 7 


Clover 




Sorghum 








Alfalfa 








Grass 








Cowpea vine 








Soja bean 








Barn-yard millet and soja bean 
Corn and soja bean 

Roots and tubers. 

Potato 














3.2 
2.4 
2.2 
1.9 
1.8 
1.9 
1.5 
1.8 
2.6 


1.2 

0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
1.4 


4 6 


Beet, common 


4 4 


Beet, sugar 


4 8 


Beet, mangel 


3 8 


Flat turnip 


3 9 


Ruta-baga 

Carrot 


4.9 
5 1 


Parsnip 


4 4 


Artichoke 


2.0!i6.8 


4 7 











THE DAIRY HERD 51 

Table V. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents. — Con. 



Name of feed. 



Miscellaneous 

Cabbage... 

Spurry 

Sugar-beet leaves 

Pumpkin, field 

Pumpkin, garden 

Prickly comf rey 

Rape 

Acorns, fresh 

Dried blood 

Meat scrap , 

Dried fish 

Beet pulp , 

Beet molasses , 

Cow's milk , 

Cow's milk, colostrum , 

Skim milk, gravity 

Skim milk, centrifugal. , 

Buttermilk 

Whey 



Q 
Lbs 



Digestible 

nuirients in 100 

pounds. 



Lbs. 



15.3 
20.0 
12.0 
9.1 
19.2 
11.6 
14.0 
44.7 



91.5 
89.3 
89.2 
10.2 
79.2 



12.8 
25.4 
9.6 
9.4 
9.9 
6.6 



O 

Lbs 



52.3 

66.2 

44.1 

0.6 

9.1 

3.6 

17.6 

3.1 

2.9 
3.9 

0.8 



8.2 
9.8 
4.6 
5.8 
8.3 
4.6 
8.1 
34.4 

.0 

.3 

.0 

7.3 

59.5 



4 

2 

4.7 

5.2 

4.0 

4.7 



4) -a 
Lbs. 



0.4 
0.8 
0.2 
0.3 
0.8 
0.2 
0.2 
1.7 

2.5 
13.7 
10.3 

"!6 

3.7 
3.6 
0.8 
0.3 
1.1 
0.3 



Fertilizing 

constituents in 

1,000 pounds 



1.1 
4.2 
4.5 



135.0 
113.9 

77.5 
1.4 

14.6 

5.3 
28.2 
5.6 
5.6 
4.8 
1.5 



ja S3 
Lbs. 



1.1 

2.5 
1.5 



1.6 
1.1 
1.5 



13.5 

7.0 

120.0 

0.2 

0.5 

1.9 
6.6 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 
1.4 



Lbs. 



4.3 
5.9 
6.2 



0.9 

7.5 
3.6 



7.7 
1.0 
2.0 
0.4 
56.3 

1.8 
1.1 
1.9 
1.9 
1.6 
1 8 



CHAPTER VIII. 

SII.OS AND SIIvAGe:. 

A silo is an air-tight receptacle for preserving green 
feeds in a succulent condition. Feed thus preserved is 
known as silage. Clover, cow-peas and other forage 
crops have been successfully made into silage, but expe- 
rience has shown that the cheapest and most satisfactory 
silage is made from corn cut in the denting or glazing 
stage. 

Silage is now universally recognized as one of the 
cheapest and most indispensable feeds in economical milk 
production. With the studious dairyman, it is no longer 
a question of, "Can I afford to build a silo," but, "Can I 
afford to be without one?" 

Advantages of Silage. The advantages of feeding 
silage may be briefly stated as follows : 

1. It furnishes the cheapest roughage available upon 
the farm. 

2. It furnishes roughage, which, in degree of suc- 
culence and palatability, more nearly approaches green 
pasturage than anything else to be had upon the farm. 

3. Owing to its kinship to grass in succulence and 
palatability, it can readily be substituted for the latter 
during periods of drought and during late summer and 
fall when pasturage is nearly always inadequate. 

4. It has made winter dairying a feasible and profit- 
able business, because the silage readily takes the place 
of summer pasturage. 

5. It furnishes a uniform feed and makes uniformly 

52 



THB DAIRY HERD 53 

good feeding a possibility the year round. 

6. It permits the storage of a large amount of feed in 
a comparatively small space. 

7. Where the silo adjoins the barn it makes feeding 
easy. 

8. It permits housing the corn crop regardless of the 
condition of the weather. 

9. There is practically no waste in feeding. 

10. It yields the largest amount of feed possible from 
the corn plant. 

Size of Silo. The size of the silo is determined by 
the number of cattle to be fed. In general, a cow will 
consume about 40 pounds of silage daily ; and, if fed 
silage 180 days in the year, she will consume a total of 
7,200 pounds. At this rate 20 head of cattle would con- 
sume 72 tons. But it should be remembered that it re- 
quires a silo of not less than 80 tons' capacity to hold 
y2 tons of well made silage. A cylindrical silo of this 
capacity will measure about 14 feet in diameter and 28 
feet in height. (See appendix.) 

A good rule to follow in determining the size of a silo 
is to estimate the amount of silage that is to be fed dur- 
ing the year and assume a weight of 40 pounds for every 
cubic foot of silage. 

Silos should not be built too large. Where 150 to 200 
tons of silage are required, it is far better to put this 
amount of silage into two silos than into one. The height 
of the silo should be limited to thirty feet. Too much 
power is required in elevating the silage higher than 
this and those who have climbed high silos will be able to 
testify to the fact that it is not an agreeable task. 

Where a silo is built with a reasonable capacity, it is 



54 DAIRY FARMING 

also more restricted in diameter which permits a deeper 
layer of silage to be removed daily. This has the ad- 
vantage of keeping the silage fresher in summer and re- 
ducing the amount of freezing in winter. Where only one 
silo is used, silage is frequently carried over from one 
year to another until the bottom part may be three to 
eight years old before it is finally fed. 

Location of Silo. For convenience of feeding, the 
silo should be as near the manger as possible. It is 
preferably joined to the barn at one end by means of a 
chute, so that one can step into the silo without leaving 
the barn. Where the silo is thus located, it is necessary 
to prevent the escape of silage odors at milking time, 
by providing doors for closing up the chute leading to 
the silo. 

Silos should be located to give them as much protection 
from cold as possible. This is especially necessary with 
concrete silos. 

The location of silos with regard to keeping the silage 
from freezing has been given too little consideration by 
silo builders. 

Construction of Silo. Silos should be round, having 
the appearance of a cylinder whose height is about twice 
its diameter. They may be built of wood, stone, brick, 
concrete, or a combination of two or more of these. As a 
rule, the choice is determined by the relative cost and 
availability of the materials mentioned. 

In building a silo four things must be kept in mind. 
First, it must be air-tight. Second, it must have sufficient 
strength and rigidity to enable it to withstand the pres- 
sure of the silage without yielding. Third, it must have 
a smooth inside surface to permit the silage to settle 



THE DAIRY HERD 55 

readily. And, fourth, it must be deep so that the weight 
of the silage will give compactness sufficient to expel the 
air which is held between the particles of silage. 

It is desirable that the total depth of the silo be at 
least 30 feet. Where the ground is dry, five or six feet 
of this depth may be underground. When 30 feet is 
selected as the fixed depth, the silo can be made of the 
desired capacity by selecting the proper diameter, which 
may vary from 12 to 24 feet. 

CONCRETE SILOS. 

Concrete has all the qualities sought in the construction 
of an ideal silo when handled in the proper manner. There 
are various forms of concrete silos built at the present 
time. Some are built of hollow blocks, some with a 
single solid wall, and others with a double wall and an air 
space between. The single solid wall has proven popular 
where the silo can be so located as to give it good pro- 
tection from the cold of the winter. 

The following is a description of two single solid walled 
silos built on "Michels' Stock Farm." (See Fig. 9>4.) 

The silos are each fourteen feet, ten inches in diameter 
(inside) and thirty feet high. The walls up to within 
three feet of the doors are six inches thick ; from this 
point they gradually increase in thickness to eight inches 
at the doors. The doors are of the continuous kind, 
extending from top to bottom. The break in the silo 
caused by the continuous door is strengthened by running 
three-quarter inch iron rods horizontally across the open- 
ing at intervals of twenty-four inches. The ends of these 
rods are embedded in the concrete wall a distance of four 
inches and fastened to them are the ends of No. 5 rein- 



56 DAIRY FARMING 

forcing wire. A reinforcing wire is laid every foot. The 
roof is made of lumber and covered with prepared roof- 
ing paper. It took three men six days to put up the silo 
wall including the concrete bottom. 

Cost of One Silo. The itemized cost of each silo is 
as follows : 

Labor, digging foundation $i6.00 

Labor, putting up the concrete wall. . . . 65.00 
Thirty-nine barrels cement at $1.20 a 

barrel 46.80 

One and one-half rolls No. 5 wire at 

$1.65 a roll 2.47 

Twenty loads gravel (distance hauled 

300 yards) at 40 cents a load 8.00 

Roof 35-00 

Binding irons run horizontally across 

door openings 2.75 

Total cost of silo, without doors $176.02 

The labor in putting up the concrete work was per- 
formed by silo builders who were paid by the day and 
they furnished their own molds and concrete mixer. The 
latter was run with a one and one-half horsepower gaso- 
line engine. No account was taken of the cost of the 
gasoline which, however, was small. Flowing water was 
run right up to the silo. 

Doors. On the inside, right at the edges of the con- 
tinuous opening for the doors, a depression, two inches 
deep and two inches wide, is made to receive the doors. 
This depression is made by putting a 2x2-inch stud in the 
mold. The doors consist of pieces of planks twelve inches 
wide. To prevent entrance of air where the planks join, 



THE DAIRY HERD 



57 




58 DAIRY FARMING 

SL layer of heavy building paper is placed between the 
silage and the doors when filling the silo. 

Advantages of Twin Silos. Two silos, if built to- 
gether at one side of the barn, have an advantage also in 
dispensing with the building of a chute, as shown in the 
accompanying illustration. Both silos when placed as 
shown here can be filled with a single setting of the 
machinery. 




Ground Plan of Silos. 



The chute acts as an exit for the foul air from the barn. 
The door which connects the barn and chute is tight-fit- 
ting and slides up and down so that it can run to within 
a foot of the floor; or, if desired, can be closed entirely. 
Using the chute as an exit for the barn air will help to 
keep the silage from freezing because of the comparative 
warmth of this air. Suflicient light is provided in the 
silos and chute by putting a window horizontally over 
part of the top of the chute. 

Where two silos are used one can certainly be emptied 
every year so that silage in no case needs to be kept 
longer than eighteen to twenty months. Two silos are 
desirable also for best results in feeding silage during the 
sumrher or early fall, as well as during the winter. 

concre;te;-line;d siIvO. 

Fig. 10 shows a vertical section through such a silo. 



THB DAIRY HERD 



59 





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00 


o 


C 








c 


en 

C 
a; 


tn 

C 




tn 

C 


^ 


u 


(U 






i< 




<u 




<u 












■u 
u 


a 



<cqOQWIiiOEhH 




Fig. 10. 



59a DAIRY FARMING 

The 2 by 4 studding are set 12 inches apart on a cir- 
cular foundation, and the Yz inch sheeting is nailed on 
hQrizontally as shown in the illustration. The inside, 
including the floor, is cemented, using two parts of sand 
to one of cement. 

Ventilation of the wall is necessary to preserve the silo. 
This is secured by leaving a small open space at the top 
on the inside between the lining and the plate, and boring 
holes near the sill through the outside sheeting, covering 
them with wire gauze to keep rats and mice out. 

Any roof that sheds water is suitable for a silo, as the 
top need not and should not be tight. In fact, it is well 
to have a small opening in the roof to provide ventilation. 

For convenience the door of the silo should be con- 
tinuous, extending from top to bottom. Short pieces of 
matched planks are commonly used for a continuous door. 
These are put in one by one as the filling of the silo pro- 
gresses ; the ends being, however, first covered with a 
paste of clayey mud to assist in rendering the door air- 
tight. Heavy building paper tacked on the inside of the 
door will also help to exclude the air. The break or 
weakness in the silo wall caused by the continuous door is 
overcome by running iron rods horizontally across the 
door at short intervals, fastening the ends to the studding 
on either side of the door. 

Cutting the Corn. Corn for the silo should not be cut 
until nearly mature. This is desirable for several rea- 
sons. First, and most important, is the fact that corn at 
maturity contains about five times as much dry matter as 
it does at the tasseling stage. This rapid increase in 
nutrients from the tasseling stage on is forcibly shown 
by the following figures obtained at the New York 
(Geneva) experiment station: 



THE DAIRY HERD 59b 

Table VI — Showing nutrients in corn plant at different stages 
of growth. 

Dry matter. 
Stage of growth. per acre 

(tons) 

Fully tasseled 0.8 

Fully silked 1.5 

Kernels watery to full milk 2.3 

Kernels glazing 3.6 

Ripe 4.0 

This table teaches an important lesson, and should dis- 
courage farmers from cutting young, immature corn, 
either for silage or soiling purposes. 

Postponing the cutting until the corn has reached the 
denting or glazing stage also makes silage of better qual- 
ity. At this stage the plant is less watery and the sugar 
has been largely converted into starch, thus preventing 
excessive fermentation and the formation of an undue 
amount of acid in the silage. 

Filling the Silo. When the corn reaches the right 
stage of maturity, it should be cut at once and hauled 
from the field to the silo, w^here the entire plant, ears and 
all, is run through an ensilage cutter or shredder, cutting 
it into pieces from ^ to i inch long. The ensilage cut- 
ters are provided with carriers which carry the silage to 
any height desired in the silo. 

Where silos are rapidly filled, not less than two men 
should remain constantly in the silo, leveling and dis- 
tributing the silage. This is necessary to insure uniform 
silage and an even settling. The silage should also be 
tramped, especially along the edge of the silo where, ow- 
ing to the friction of the wall, it will not settle as readily 
as elsewhere. 

In case of rapid filling it is best also to leave the silage 



59c 



DAIRY FARMING 



to settle a day or two and then refill. After such settling 
there will be room for considerably more silage. 

Covering for Silage. The floor and walls of the silo 
are air tight by construction, and where the silage has 
been thoroughly packed, none should spoil at these places. 
At the top, however, where the silage is exposed to the 
air and where it is less solidly packed some of it will 
naturally spoil. To reduce this loss of silage to a mini- 
mum, some cheap material that will pack well, such as 
old, wet hay, for example, should be placed on top of the 
silage immediately after filling, and this should be fol- 
lowed by a thorough wetting so as to hasten the settling 
and matting process. Usually a dozen barrels of water 
may be run over the top of the silage to good advantage. 




MILAGE TRUCK. 



Depth of Silage that Must Daily Be Removed from 
Top. Owing to the constant contact of the air with the 
top layer of silage, it is necessary to remove a horizontal 
layer of silage to a depth of not less than i^ inches daily 
to prevent any from spoiling. If this fact is kept in mind 
when building a silo, its diameter can be made such as to 
make possible the feeding of a layer of this depth daily. 



THE DAIRY HERD 59d 

Cost of Silos and Machinery. The cost of silos 
varies with the cost of materials and the method of con- 
struction. An 8o-ton silo of the Gurler type can be built 
for about $150. Other silos of the same capacity, but 
made of different materials may cost double this amount. 

A moderate sized ensilage cutter that would answer for 
an 80-ton silo would also cost about $150. 

Where some form of power must be purchased a gaso- 
line engine is recommended because of the many other 
uses it may serve on a dairy farm. (See Chap. XV.) 

A moderate sized ensilage cutter when not too heavily 
fed can be operated satisfactorily with an eight horse 
power gasoline engine. The cost of such an engine is 
about $250. 



CHAPTER IX. 

METHOD OF KEEPING RECORDS OF INDIVIDUAL COWS. 

Necessity of Keeping Records. Through the efforts 
of experiment stations, private individuals, and Hoard's 
Dairyman in particular, tests have been made of hundreds 
of herds throughout the country, only to find that in 
practically all of them some cows are kept at an actual 
loss to their owners. The failure on the part of the 
owners to detect the unprofitable cows may be traced 
to three causes : ( i ) it may be the result of reckoning 
with the herd as a whole, rather than the individual 
members composing it; (2) it may be the result of ignor- 
ing the quality of the milk; or (3) it may be due to 
attempts to estimate the value of the individual members 
by guessing at the flow of milk for a week or two when 
the cows are doing their best. 

The lack of business method in reckoning with the 
herd as a whole, rather than with the individuals com- 
posing it, is too apparent to need further explanation. 
The same may be said with reference to the practice 
of ignoring the quality of the milk. Where the owner 
guesses the annual yield from the quantity of milk pro- 
duced for a week or two during the lactation period, 
he is likely to err in three important respects : ( i ) 
guessing in itself is bound to lead more or less frequently 
to grossly erroneous estimates; (2) yearly estimates based 
upon a few weeks' production ignore the fact that some 
cows yield milk eleven or twelve months of the year, 

60 



THE DAIRY HERD 



61 




^ CHATILLONS 

IMPROVED CIRCULAR 
SPRING BALANCE 

TO wricn 30ib 

BY OUNCES 



while others produce only seven or eight months ; and 
(3) estimates of this kind fail to consider that some 
cows that yield heavily for a short time and then drop 
off to a medium flow, may be exceeded in total pro- 
duction by others that never yield heavily at any period, 
but whose flow is quite steady from beginning to end 
of the lactation period. 

It is evident from what has been 
said that there is but one method by 
which we can tell with certainty the 
value of the individual cows in a 
herd, and that method consists in 
weighing and testing the milk and 
keeping a record of the feed con- 
sumed for the entire period of lacta- 
tion. 

Daily Record of Milk. Keep- 
ing a daily record of the weight of 
the milk of each cow is a very sim- 
ple and inexpensive task. All that 
is necessary is to have some form of 
scales and a ruled sheet of paper 
upon which to record the weights of 
milk morning and night. Fig. ii 
shows a cheap and convenient scales 
which weigh from one-tenth pound 
to 30 pounds. A convenient milk 
record sheet is shown below. 

The daily weighing of the milk 
from each cow is valuable also in 
serving as a check upon the work of 
the milkers. A rapid shrinking in the milk is easily 
detected on the milk sheet and may be entirely due to 




Fig. 11.— Milk Scales. 
Weigh 0.1 to 30 pounds. 



62 



DAIRY FARMING 



Milk Record for Month 


O/"- 












t90 








Nnrae of Cow. 


Date. 


1 


Q 


a 

a 

V 


























Lbs. 


Lb» 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs 


Lbs. 


, A.M. 
* P. M. 


























































2 AJJ 






























* P. M. 






























q A. M. 






























" P. M. 






























. A. M. 






























* P. M. 






























6 ^H- 






























" P. M. 






























(, A.M. 






























° P. M. 






























7 A. M. 






























' P. M 






























8 ^•^■ 






























" P. M. 






























a A.M. 






























" P. M. 






























10 A.M. 






























*" P. M. 




























































" P. M. 






























18 ^- M- 






























'* P. M- 






























13 A. M. 




























































" ^:^. 


























































>« ^;SJ: 


























































,« A.M. 
'« P. M. 


























































... A. M. 
" P. M. 


























































,g A. M. 
'^ P. M. 


























































'» #.-SJ: 


























































^0 ^.iS: 


























































2, A. M. 
2' P. M. 


























































M2 A.M. 
"^ P. M. 


























































^'B t^: 


























































- #.-SJ: 


























































,j; A. M. 

26 P. M. 


























































oo A. M. 
*8 P. M. 


























































27 A.M. 
^ P. M. 


























































28 A-M- 






























■" P. M. 






























29 A. M. 






























*" P. M. 






























30 A.M. 






























** P. M. 






























Total 































THE DAIRY HERD 



63 



careless milking. Great daily fluctuations in the yield 
of milk are also in most cases the result of indifferent 
and inefficient milkers. 

Collecting Samples of Milk for Testing. The milk 
from each cow should be tested about once a month dur- 
ing the whole period of lactation. A satisfactory way of 
doing this is to collect what is known as a composite 
sample, which consists in securing about one-half ounce 
of milk from each of six consecutive milkings and placing 
this in a half pint composite sample jar (Fig. 12) con- 





Fig. 13.— Test BoUle Rack. 



taining a small amount of preservative. A test of this 
composite sample will represent the average per cent 
of butterfat for the period during which the sample 
was taken and will serve with sufficient accuracy as the 
average test for the entire month. 

Each composite sample jar should be carefully labeled 
by placing the name or number of the cow upon it. A 
convenient rack for these jars is shown in Fig. 13. 



64 DAIRY FARMING 

Sampling and Samplers. Immediately after milking 
the milk is poured from one pail into another several 
times and then sampled at once. The sampling may he 
done by either of two methods : ( i ) by means of a one- 
half or one ounce dipper shown in Fig. 14; or (2) by 
means of a narrow tube shown in Fig. 15. 




Fig. 14.— Fig-. 15.— 

Dipper Samp- Thief Samp- 

ler, ler. 

The dipper furnishes the simplest and easiest means 
of sampling milk. Where the milk is thoroughly mixed 
and where the quantity is practically the same morning 
and night, this method of sampling is accurate. 

With the tube method the sample is always propor- 
tionate to the quantity of milk and it will draw a reo- 



THE DAIRY HERD 65 

resentative sample even when the milk has stood undis- 
turbed a few minutes. This method of sampling should 
be employed, therefore, where there is much variation in 
the quantity of night's and morning's milk, or where 
the milk is not apt to be thoroughly mixed before samp- 
ling. 

Preservatives. Milk can not be satisfactorily tested 
after it has soured, owing to the difficulty of securing 
an accurate sample. This makes it necessary to place a 
small amount of preservative in the composite sample 
jar before the sampling is begun. 

The best preservatives for this purpose are corrosive 
sublimate, formalin and bichromate of potash. All of 
these are poisons and care must be taken to place them 
where children and others unfamiliar with their poisonous 
properties, can not have access to them. For conve- 
nience, the bichromate of potash and corrosive sublimate 
have been put up in tablet form, each tablet containing 
enough preservative to keep a pint of milk sweet from 
one to two weeks. The bichromate of potash can be 
procured from all druggists, and a quantity not to exceed 
the size of a pea should be added to each pint composite 
jar. A larger quantity is liable to interfere with the 
testing. 

Testing With the Babcock Test. The method of 
operating the Babcock test is explained in detail in chap- 
ter XVIII. 

Calculating Butterfat and Butter Yield. The 
monthly butterfat yield of each cow is determined by 
multiplying the total pounds of milk for the month by 
the per cent of butterfat it contains. For example, if 
cow No. I produced 850 lbs. of milk testing 4.2% fat, the 



66 DAIRY FARMING 

total fat in this milk would equal 850X4.2, or 35.70 
pounds. 

Since butter contains salt, water, casein and only about 
83% butterfat, it is to be expected that the yield of 
butter will exceed that of butterfat, provided the losses 
in skimming and churning are normal. The general 
rule in estimating the butter yield is to increase the but- 
terfat by one-sixth. Thus the estimated butter yield 
of the 35.70 pounds of fat given above would equal 35.70 
Xi 1-6 or 41.65 pounds. The difference between the 
butterfat and the actual butter yield is known as the 
"overrun." 

Estimating the Cost of Feed. The final test of the 
value of a cow is the economy of production. In addition, 
therefore, to knowing the butterfat yield, we must also 
know the cost of the feed she consumed in producing it. 
Obviously a daily weighing of the feed, especially as 
concerns roughage, is not practical upon most dairy farms. 
If the feed which each cow receives is weighed about 
twice a month an approximate estimate of the feed 
consumed can be obtained by considering the weighed 
amount of feed as the average daily consumption for the 
month. To illustrate, let us suppose that cow No. X is 
doing full work on a ration consisting of 8 pounds of 
wheat bran, 2 pounds of cotton-seed meal, 40 pounds 
of corn silage and 8 pounds of corn stover. By carefully 
observing the volume of the weighed amounts of each 
feed, approximate quantities may be measured for two 
weeks, after which a day's feed is again weighed and the 
measuring continued for the remainder of the month. 
In this way an approximate estimate of the quantity of 
feed consumed for the month can be obtained with a small 
amount of labor. By multiplying the total quantities 
of the different feeds fed during thp month, by their 



THE DAIRY HERD 



67 



respective values per ton, we obtain an approximate cost 
of the feed fed each cow during that period. 

Yearly Record of Milk, Butterfat and Feed. At the 

end of each month a record of each cow's milk, butterfat 
test, and butterfat production, as well as an estimate 
of the cost of feed, should be entered upon a yearly 
record sheet like that shown below. 





HERD RECORD 


FOR YEAR 


190 . 






NAME OF COW 


NAME OF COW 


Month 


i 


a 

O 
u 
V 


:3 


•din 
n o 

a -a 

ID « 


3. 


4) 

Q 

u 

M 
0) 


fa 
3 

_P3 


Estimated 
Feed, Cost 




























































































































































Total 



















CHAPTER X. 

MILKING. 

Importance of the Milking Process. The profits 
from a dairy herd are far more largely dependent upon 
the conditions under which the milk is drawn than dairy- 
men are commonly led to believe. For example, hundreds 
of instances could be mentioned where milk drawn under 
cleanly conditions has been sold for one hundred per 
cent more than that drawn under uncleanly conditions. 
But milking from the standpoint of cleanliness is 
discussed in the chapter on sanitary milk pro- 
duction and will, therefore, not be considered here. 
The conditions that will be treated in the following 
pages are those which have a direct bearing upon the 
yield of milk and butterfat, and which are no less import- 
ant in determining the profits from the herd than are those 
concerning cleanliness. 

Milk Function Controlled by Nervous System. The 
various factors bearing upon the secretion of milk are 
readily understood when it is remembered that the pro- 
duction of milk is closely associated with the nervous 
organization of the cow. Whatever reacts upon her nerv- 
ous system will react in like degree upon the secretion 
of milk. 

Value of Kind and Gentle Treatment. It is owing 
to her high nerve development that a cow is so very 
sensitive to excitement, boisterousness, unkindness, rough 
treatment and other allied abuses which always react 

68 



THE DAIRY HERD 69 

so unfavorably upon the production of milk and butterfat. 
Especially disastrous are the effects of abuses admin- 
istered just previous to or during milking. Yet how fre- 
quently are dogs allowed to chase the cows to the stable, 
and how often are attendants seen with clubs which they 
use as aids in getting the cows into their proper places ! 
In addition, the language and boisterousness that accom- 
panies all this leaves no doubt that the animals are 
treated as offending brutes, instead of willing, sensitive 
mothers who are scarcely any less sensitive to harsh 
words than are human mothers. Make pets out of your 
cows by kind treatment, for kindness is never without 
compensation, no matter how, when or where applied. 

Elaboration of Milk During Milking, If, in addi- 
tion to what has been said, it will be remembered that 
the larger portion of the milk is secreted during the 
process of milking, the importance of giving a cow the 
very best care and treatment at this time will be fully 
apparent. Furthermore, the fact that most of the milk 
is formed during milking, materially assists in explaining 
M^hy different milkers secure such varying quantities of 
milk and butterfat from the same cow. 

Effect of Change of Milkers. From what has been 
said it is easily seen that frequent changes of milkers are 
certain to react unfavorably upon the milk and butterfat 
production. A cow that has become thoroughly accus- 
tomed to a certain milker will feel restless and uneasy 
with a new milker, which is nowhere more plainly indi- 
cated than on the milk sheet. A change of milkers, 
furthermore, always means a change in the manner of 
milking, and, therefore, a change in the stimulation of 
the udder. Since the stimulation of the udder by the 
milker is the cause of n.ilk secretion, it is evident that 



70 DAIRY FARMING 

a change in the method of stimulation will result in 
a reduction of milk and butterfat production. The wise 
dairyman will therefore avoid changing milkers as far 
as possible, and will insist that the same milker always 
milk the same cows. 

Fast Versus Slow Milking. The larger yields are 
secured from fast milking. This may possibly be ex- 
plained upon the basis of udder stimulation. The fast 
milker will stimulate the udder to a greater degree than 
the slow milker, and the extra stimulus thus given evi- 
dently favors the secretion in the milk glands, as indicated 
by the actual increased production. 

Importance of Witlidrawing AH tlie Milk. One 
of the most important factors in milking is securing all 
the milk at each milking; that is, milking a cow dry. 
Whatever milk is left in the udder from one milking 
to another is not only lost to the milker, but actually 
acts as a check upon further secretion, so that the 
habitual practice of not milking cows "clean" or "dry" 
results in a gradual shrinking of the milk flow and an 
early "drying up" of the cow. Furthermore, the loss 
of the strippings means the loss of the very best milk. 
The first milk drawn from a cow usually contains less 
than 1% fat, while the strippings may contain as much 
as 14%. 

Regularity of Milking and Feeding. The man who 
is looking for satisfactory returns from his dairy must 
make regularity a watchword. Cows must be milked reg- 
ularly at a fixed time morning and night. Milking 
half an hour sooner or later than the fixed time interferes 
much more seriously with the milk yield than is com- 
monly supposed. Not only does irregularity of milking 
reduce the yield of milk and butterfat, but irregularity in 



THE DAIRY HERD 71 

feeding leads to the same result. If, for example, cows 
that have been accustomed to receive their concentrates 
before milking, should receive them at times after milk- 
ing^ a reduction in the yield would be at once noticed. 
This is just what might be expected. Withholding the 
concentrates occasionally, will make the cows restless and 
discontented, which will sufficiently jar their nervous sys- 
tem to cause a perceptible drop in the milk flow. Sudden 
changes of feeds will act in a similar manner. 

Time Between Milkings. The periods between milk- 
ings should be as nearly equal as possible. For example, 
if cows are being milked at six o'clock in the morning, 
they are also preferably milked at six o'clock at night. 
The more uniform the periods between milkings, the more 
uniform the secretion of milk, and consequently the 
greater the production. The time between milkings also 
influences the richness of the milk. If the two milking 
periods are not equal, it will be found that the milk of the 
shorter period will be the richer. 

Frequency of Milking. As a rule nothing is gained 
by milking a cow three times instead of twice daily. In 
the case of exceptionally heavy milkers whose udders 
become unduly distended, there is, however, a distinct 
advantage in milking three times daily. The fact that 
milk from the shorter intervals between milkings has 
been found richer than that from the longer intervals, 
has driven some to the practice of milking average pro- 
ducers three times a day, with the hope of permanently 
increasing the test. While under such circumstances the 
test may be raised somewhat, the raise is only a temporary 
one. 

The Value of a Good Milker. From what has already 
been said, it is evident that the milker plays an important 



72 DAIRY FARMING 

part in the milk and butterfat production of cows. The 
following data secured by H. B. Gurler from his own 
herd fully illustrate the importance of a good milker. As 
a result of two winters' tests, Mr. Gurler found that 
the cows milked by the poorest milker had fallen off 9.5 
pounds per head in three months, while the shrinkage 
of the cows milked by the best milker during the same 
period was only 1.88 pounds per head, a difference at 
the end of three months of 7.62 pounds of milk per cow 
daily in favor of the best milker. This fully explains 
why some milkers are cheap at $40 per month, while 
others are really expensive at less than half this amount. 

The Milk Scales and Babcock Tester as a Teacher 
of Correct Milking. The strongest searchlight used for 
the discovery of leaks in the dairy herd consists of a pair 
of scales and a Babcock tester. These will not only tell 
which cows are profitable and which are not, but, if 
rightly employed, will also tell which milkers are paying 
for their salaries and which are not. Milkers should be 
paid according to the quality of their work, and not, as is 
commonly the case, according to the number of hours' 
service. 

Milking Machines. Whether the milking machine 
may be considered an unqualified success can not be posi- 
tively stated at the present time. More time and tests are 
needed to warrant a positive statement. It may be stated, 
however, that many of our foremost dairymen have 
endorsed the milking machine as a successful milker, 
and this, too, after apparently thorough tests extending 
over periods of many months. Experiment stations also 
report favorable results from machine milking. 



CHAPTER XL 

HERD MANAGEMENT. 

Winter Dairying. Producing the bulk of milk during 
the winter has four distinct advantages : ( i ) prices for 
butter and cheese are higher at this time of the year; 
(2) cows will milk longer when calving in the fall than 
in the spring; (3) labor is more plentiful at this time 
of the year; and (4) it is possible to feed cows cheaper 
during the winter than summer, 

1. As a rule prices for butter are from 50 to 75 per 
cent higher in winter than in summer. Prices for cheese 
average about 50 per cent higher in winter. Indeed 
prices for milk in general are higher in winter than sum- 
mer. It is evident that from the standpoint of higher 
prices alone, it is the part of wisdom to produce the 
bulk of the milk during the winter. 

2. When cows calve in the spring, they usually 
have pasturage enough for a good flow of milk until 
about August. At this time pastures as a rule get short 
and cows rapidly fall off in milk. By the time stable 
feeding begins they have dropped off so much that they 
can not be brought back to a fair flow of milk even on 
good feed. The result is a reduced yield of milk and an 
early "drying up" of the cows. 

When cows calve in the fall the expectation is to pro- 
duce the main flow of milk during the v/inter and conse- 
quently the cows are well supplied with feed until they 
are turned out on good pasturage in the spring. In this 

73 



74 DAIRY FARMING 

way the cows maintain a good flow of milk until the best 
period of grazing is over. The inevitable result is an 
extension of the period of lactation and a greater total 
production of milk. An increased production is also 
favored by the fact that cows yield the greater share 
of their milk during a time when they are least troubled 
with flies and excessive heat. 

3. It is an important advantage to be able to do most 
of the milking when other farm duties demand least 
attention. By having the cows calve in the fall, most of 
the milking is done during the winter. 

4. An acre of land planted to corn ordinarily yields 
as much feed as two or three acres in pasturage. When 
the cows calve in the fall there is bound to be more silage 
produced than when the cows calve in the spring, and 
in so far as this is true, the cost of feed is lessened. In 
the case of high priced land, the saving effected by 
reducing the acreage one-half or two-thirds by feeding 
a great deal of silage in place of pasturage must be evi- 
dent. 

Feeding the Bull. During the early life of the bull 
when he is reasonably tractable, there is no better place 
for him than a strongly enclosed pasture. This will sup- 
ply him with the right kind of feed, give him plenty of 
fresh air and sunshine, and afford him needful exercise. 
When stall-fed, he is preferably supplied with nitrogenous 
roughage, such as good clean clover hay. When the 
roughage consists of corn stover or oat straw, the bull 
should be given a fair allowance of wheat bran, oats or 
similar concentrates. It is always desirable to supply a 
stall-fed bull a moderate amount of succulent roughage, 
such as roots and silage. 

Management of Bull. A bull should never be allowed 



THE DAIRY HERD 



75 



to run with the herd, but is preferably kept where he is in 
sight of the cows. He should have a ring placed in his 
nose when ten or twelve months old. As a rule it is 
best not to tie him by the ring, but to give him the free- 
dom of a box stall. He should be given enough exercise 
to keep him tractable and in good breeding condition. By 
all means have him dehorned. 

Never trifle with a bull. He should be treated gently 
yet firmly. He must know he has a master. It is im- 
portant to teach him early to be led with a staff fastened 
to the ring- in his nose. 







ELCVflTco n^t-n 


III 


tre:/\o 

POWITR 

e'xic- 


1 \ 


j^ 


A 


\ 

BOX 
'5TA.LL 
) lO'XIZ' 


PEN. 

&XIO' 






pLCVAtTeo 


tv/^i/f 


III 



B 



Bull Pen 
SOX 50' 



Breeding Pe/t 




3—.' 



^ai'Sed Math 

Fig. 16.— Bull Pens. 



76 DAIRY FARMING 

It is a great misfortune to have so many valuable 
bulls disposed of at the first signs of unruliness. When 
a bull has proven his value as a breeder by his own 
offspring, he should be, and can be, retained even though 
his disposition becomes threatening, by quartering him as 
shown in Fig. i6. 

B represents a pen which the author has successfully 
used a number of years. It consists of an enclosure with 
stable and breeding pen as shown in the preceding illus- 
tration (B). The bull run is fifty feet square, including 
the stable, and is enclosed by a solid board fence six and 
one-half feet high. The cow is bred in this pen by tying 
her to the front end and then letting in the bull by open- 
ing the stable door. The latter closes the pen when 
opened as shown in the cut. 

While a bull can be managed in a pen such as is here 
described without coming in contact with him, it is best 
to lead him out occasionally with a stick snapped into the 
ring of his nose. 

A represents a yard or pen essentially as recommended 
by the Illinois Station. At one end of the yard is located 
a box stall in which the bull is fed and sheltered. The 
other end is divided into two compartments, one con- 
taining a tread power, the other serving as a breeding 
pen. The gate H may be turned to the right or to the 
left, closing either of the two compartments as may be 
desired. 

The tread power furnishes the means of exercising 
the bull. When he is wanted on the tread power, a 
rope is attached to his ring while he is at the manger and 
the attendant, who walks over the elevated narrow walk, 
leads him onto the power and shuts the gate be- 
hind him. While the bull is taking his exercise the 
attendant cleans and prepares his stall. When the bull 



THB DAIRY HERD Tl 

is wanted in the breeding pen he is similarly led along 
the other side of the yard. Water and feed can be 
supplied from the outside. 

It is evident that a yard of this kind guarantees abso- 
lute safety, provides good exercise for the bull, which 
at the same time furnishes the power to pump water, 
separate the milk, and do other useful things. 

An important matter in the management of a bull 
is to prevent excessive service. A bull should be over 
one year old before he is allowed to serve and the services 
the first season should be limited to lo or 15, depending 
upon the strength and vigor of the bull. The second 
season he may serve 25 cows. And while some bulls 
have apparently successfully served as many as 40 or 
more cows in a season, it will be found good policy, 
as a rule, to restrict the number of services as much as 
possible, especially if the usefulness of the bull is to be 
preserved for a long time. 

Breeding Rack. When heifers or small cows are bred 
to heavy bulls, a breeding rack should be used. This 
may be constructed as follows : Place tv/o posts in the 
ground 3^ feet high and about i^ feet apart. In a line 
parallel with these posts and 8 or 9 feet away, place two 
more posts 13^ feet high and 20 to 22 inches apart. 
Connect the short and long posts with 2x12 inch planks, 
leaving a space of 18 inches wide between the planks at 
the higher end, and 20 to 22 inches wide at the lower end, 
which serves as the entrance. This space will fit most 
cows, but it is desirable to have the planks adjustable so 
that the space between may be increased or decreased 
according to the size of the cows. The arrangement as 
described permits the bull's front feet to rest on the 
planks during service. The planks should be provided 



78 DAIRY FARMING 

with cleats and must be strongly supported at the middle. 
An adjustable stanchion is used to hold the cow in posi- 
tion. 

Age to Breed Heifers. Heifers should be bred to 
drop their calves when about two years old. In cases 
where there is a particular lack of development in growth 
and general vigor, it would doubtless be a distinct 
advantage to have heifers drop their calves at 26, 28 or 
even 30 months of age. 

Early breeding has the efifect of stunting the growth 
of the animal, and thus making maximum development 
impossible. The heifer that is bred at one year of age 
is obliged to turn a portion of the feed that is naturally 
intended for her own development to that of the foetus. 
After the calf is dropped a still larger portion of the feed 
intended for her own development is utilized for the 
production of milk. 

While the stunting efifect from early breeding has its 
drawback, there is also danger in delaying the breeding 
too long. It is doubtless correctly maintained that early 
breeding has the advantage of early stimulating the milk 
giving function of the animal, and that heifers that drop 
their calves at, say three years old, are apt to develop a 
beefy tendency at the expense of the dairy tendency. 

It is evident that this matter calls for a great deal of 
judgment. If a heifer leans toward the beefy tendency, 
doubtless it is policy to breed her rather young. If, 
on the other hand, there is a complete absence of a beefy 
tendency and an indication of a slow development and 
delicacy, no one would question the wisdom of breeding 
such an animal relatively late. 

Record Date of Service and Calving. This is import- 
ant for three reasons : ( i ) it enables one to confine cows 



THE DAIRY HERD 79 

in box stalls about a week before calving; (2) it enables 
one to tell the exact length of time cows have carried 
their calves, and therefore makes possible the detection 
of premature births and abortions; (3) one knows the 
exact length of the lactation period of each cow. 

1. Where the date of service is not known, it fre- 
quently happens that cows are obliged to calve in their 
stalls or stanchions. Such unfortunate occurrences should 
be prevented by confining cows in roomy box stalls not 
less than a week before they are due to calve. 

2. In case the date of service is not known, it is 
perfectly possible for cows to drop living abortions which 
the owner may mistake for mature calves. Where the 
abortion is of a contagious nature the danger of mistakes 
of this kind is too evident to need further explanation. 

3. Most dairymen appreciate the value of persistent 
milkers, yet comparatively few are able to tell, even 
approximately, the length of the lactation period of the 
different cows in the herd. The only certain way of 
knowing how long each cow produces milk after calving 
is to record the date of calving. 

"Drying Off" Cows. As a rule it is desirable to 
have cows "go dry" at least a month before calving. 
This has the effect of increasing the supply of nutrients 
for the development of the foetus, as well as enabling 
the cow to store up some reserve energy which will put 
her in better physical condition for the act of parturition 
and the period immediately following. 

Where it is desirable to hasten the "drying off," the 
following method will be of value. Start drying off by 
not milking the cow clean. This will quickly reduce 
the flow to a point where it is safe to skip every other 
milking. After a few days, or perhaps a week, the 



80 DAIRY FARMING 

milk will be sufficiently reduced to warrant milking only 
every other day. A very short time after this, as a 
rule, it will be found safe to stop milking entirely. 

In case of very persistent milkers, it is better to milk 
them close up to, if not up to, calving, rather than 
force the "drying off" process too much. 

Dehorning. The advantage of dehorning is now pretty 
generally recognized. The absence of horns makes cows 
more quiet and docile, and saves them many tortures 
that are ordinarily inflicted when the horns are retained. 

The horns may be removed either by sawing them 
off or by cutting them off with an instrument known as 
a clipper. The simplest and most humane method of 
removing horns, however, is the use of caustic potash 
soon after the calf is born. The Author has dehorned 
a great many calves by this method which is briefly 
described as follows : 

When the calf is 24 to 36 hours old, clip the hair 
from the invisible horns or buttons and rub them with a 
stick of caustic potash. The potash should be kept in an 
air-tight bottle until ready for use. As soon as removed 
from the bottle, the upper part of the stick should be 
wrapped with a piece of paper to prevent its burning 
the hand. After a few minutes' exposure to the air 
the stick becomes moist. As soon as this becomes notice- 
able, rub the exposed end of the stick over each button 
for a minute or two, or until the spot begins to look 
reddish or sore. If the calf is examined twelve hours 
later, a scab will be found where the potash was applied, 
showing that the potash has gradually eaten its way 
into the button and thus destroyed it. Care should be 
exercised not to allow the potash to touch any part but 



THE DAIRY HERD 81 

the miniature horn, as a drop on the flesh would cause 
unnecessary pain. 

Cleanliness, Regularity and Kind Treatment. The 

subject of cleanliness is fully discussed in the chapter 
on Sanitary Milk Production. The importance of regu- 
larity and kind treatment are fully considered in the 
chapter on Milking. 

Warm Housing. On account of their general spare- 
ness of flesh, cows have little protection for their vital 
organs and are therefore peculiarly susceptible to cold. 
For this reason, warm housing during the winter season 
is a matter of the highest importance. It matters little 
how good a dairy machine a cow may be or how well 
she may be fed, the returns from her will be unsatis- 
factory if she is compelled to shiver in her stable the 
larger portion of the winter and is possibly even denied 
the protection of a stable during the cold drizzling rains 
which usually precede and follow the severe cold of the 
winter. 

Cows in Heat. Cows, while in heat, should be kept 
separate from the rest of the herd to avoid the usual 
disturbances incident to keeping them with the herd. 



CHAPTER XII. 

REARING THE DAIRY CALI'. 

Prenatal Development. The making of a strong, vig- 
orous, healthy calf begins before it is born. Unless the 
pregnant mother is furnished with a sufficient amount 
of good, wholesome feed, rich in ash and protein, the 
foetus must necessarily suffer retarded development. Not 
only should the pregnant cow be supplied with the proper 
nutrients for the development of bone and muscle in 
the foetus, but the ration should be such as will keep her 
in the best physical condition, which requires some suc- 
culent roughage and grain rather laxative in character. 
(See page 42.) 

Time the Cow Should Suckle the Calf. As a rule 
it is best to remove the calf from its mother before it 
is three days old. The early removal of the calf has 
several important advantages : ( i ) it prevents to a great 
extent the excitement attendant on separating an older 
calf from its mother; (2) it renders it easier to teach the 
calf to drink from a bucket; (3) it permits regularity 
of milking from the start; and (4) it makes possible 
at the outset to milk the cow "clean" at each milking. 
Calves never feed regularly, nor do they suck heavy 
milkers dry at any time. The result is a continual 
residue of milk in the udder which acts as a check to 
the secretion of this substance and leads to an early 
shrinkage in the milk yield. 

In cases of caked and inflamed udders it is best, how- 
ever, to allow the calf to suckle the cow longer than 

82 



THE DAIRY HERD 



83 



the time stated, since this has a tendency to hasten the 
disappearance of such trouble. 

Feeding the Young Calf. The first milk drawn after 
calving has purging properties which nature has provided 
for the purging of the calf. It is important, therefore, 
that the calf receive this milk which is known as colos- 
trum. 

As soon as removed from the cow, the calf should be 
taught to drink from a clean bucket. It should be aided 
in this for a day or two by holding the tip of a finger 
in its mouth. The milk should be fed as near body 
temperature as possible. During the first two weeks 
the calf should be fed not less than three times a day, 
receiving eight to ten pounds of milk daily the first week, 
and ten to twelve pounds the second week. After the 
second week skim milk may be gradually substituted 
for whole milk, bringing the calf to a full skim milk 




Fig. 17.— Calf stanchions. 



84 DAIRY P ARMING 

feed at the end of four weeks. Beginning with the 
substitution of skim milk, the calf should be fed a hand- 
ful of ground oats, corn meal, or linseed meal after each 
milk feed. At the age of one month, when feeding 
wholly on skim milk, one-half pound of grain may be fed 
daily to good advantage, and access should be given to 
good clean hay. The feed should be gradually increased 
with the growing needs of the animal. 

Calf Stanchions. The feeding of milk to calves 
becomes a comparatively easy task when the calves are 
confined in cheap, rigid stanchions like those shown in 
Fig. 17. When so confined one person can feed half a 
dozen or more calves at the same time, and can do this 
with less labor than is ordinarily required to feed one calf. 
It is well, however, not to keep the calves in the stanch- 
ions too long at any one time, because of the rigid con- 
finement. Calves that have formed the "sucking" habit 
may be confined to advantage in these stanchions during 
the night, especially when no small separate pens are 
available. 

Importance of Correct Feeding. A young calf has a 
delicate stomach, which is peculiarly liable to be upset by 
the injudicious feeding of milk and skim-milk. In this 
respect it differs little from the very young child. The 
effect that usually follows the injudicious feeding of milk 
is a case of scours. This trouble can be obviated in a 
large measure by strictly observing the following precau- 
tions : First, never feed calves cold milk, but have it as 
near blood heat as possible ; second, feed milk as fresh as 
possible and under no circumstances feed it when sour; 
third, feed milk only from vessels that have been thor- 
oughly cleaned and scalded ; and fourth, carefully avoid 
over-feeding. Scours or diarrhea is one of the common- 



THE DAIRY HERD 85 

est ailments of calves and one that leaves a great stunting 
effect upon their development. 

While great importance attaches to the correct feeding 
of the calf in its early life, an ample allowance of feed 
of the right kind should be supplied at all times. Fatten- 
ing feeds should always be avoided. 

General Care of the Calf. Calves should be given 
all the outdoor exercise, fresh air and sunshine possible. 
During cold and rainy weather they should be confined 
in clean, dry stables with plenty of bedding. All the 
comfort possible should be provided for calves at all 
times. It is important also to see that they are not too 
much annoyed by flies during the summer. When 
changed from dry feed to pasture the change should be 
made gradually, or trouble from scouring is likely to be 
encountered. Plenty of good, pure water should be pro- 
vided. The skim-milk feeding may be continued with 
profit for at least six months. When no pasture is avail- 
able, it is desirable to feed a liberal amount of good, 
nitrogenous hay and only a small amount of grain. This 
will furnish the necessary nutriments for growth, at the 
same time the large amount of roughage tends to de- 
velop a large paunch in the young animal. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



DAIRY BARN. 



A Place Where Human Food is Prepared. In build- 
ing a dairy barn it should be remembered that one is pro- 
viding a place where human food is to be produced. San- 
itary features should, therefore, have first consideration. 
Among the most important of these are abundance of 
light, ample ventilation and general regard to cleanli- 
ness. 

Contrary to general belief, a sanitary barn is not nec- 
essarily an expensive barn. Indeed where everything is 
considered, a sanitary barn is certain to prove actually 
cheaper in the long run than one in which sanitation is 
made an entirely secondary matter. 

General Plan of Barn. This is illustrated in Fig. i8. 
For a full description of the barn, of which this floor plan 
is a part, see page 87. This barn was designed and built 
by the author for the Milwaukee County (Wis.) School 
of Agriculture. The plan shows a milk, two feed and 
storage rooms, calf pens, box stalls and forty cow stalls, 
with two silos joined to the northeast corner. 

There is an eight-foot drive through the middle of the 
barn, which makes it possible to haul the manure out of 
the barn with a manure spreader. This arrangement 
will save a great deal of labor in handling the manure 
and has several other advantages over the common plan 
of having the feeding alley in the middle of the barn. 

86 



THE DAIRY HERD 



87 




s s 



88 DAIRY FARMING 

In the first place it is more sanitary. Where the 
two rows of cows face each other the foul breath 
from each must necessarily pass from one side to 
the other, thus causing the cows to breathe more or 
less impure air. When the cows face out the exhaled 
air is more equally distributed through the barn and in 
so far reduces the amount of impurities in it immediately 
in front of the cows. Another advantage in facing cows 
out is the fact that the head is placed nearest the wall 
where the temperature is lowest, leaving the portion of 
the animal that must be most protected from the cold in 
the warmer part of the stable. 

The silos are placed where most convenient for feeding 
and where they have reasonable protection from cold. 
Fresh air inlets are built in the wall of the barn and 
the air outlets are placed where they do not occupy valu- 
able space but where their efficiency is not materially 
interfered with. 

Foundation and Floor. The barn should rest upon a 
substantial foundation constructed of stone or concrete. 
On the outside of the foundation and a little below it 
should be placed tile drains to prevent any water from 
working its way under the foundation. 

For sanitary reasons, only concrete floors should be 
permitted in a dairy barn. While the original cost may 
be somewhat high, in the long run they are cheapest. 
Aside from being easily cleaned, they also make possible 
the saving of all the liquid manure, an important item to 
consider in the management of a dairy. To prevent the 
dampness commonly associated with a concrete floor it 
should be constructed on a cobble stone and cinder foun- 
dation underlaid with drain tile. The finish of the floor 
should be rather rough to prevent cows slipping on it. 



THE DAIRY HERD 89 

The feeding alleys, that is, the part of the floor be- 
tween the mangers and the walls, should be about three 
inches higher than the platforms on which the cows 
stand. Moreover they should slope slightly toward the 
mangers. The platforms and driveway should also slope 
very slightly toward the gutters. 

Light. Sunlight, because of its disinfectant action, is 
of prime importance in making a stable sanitary. There 
should be not less than four square feet of window space 
per cow. 

Walls. Cheap and reasonably air-tight walls are se- 
cured by nailing matched lumber over good building 
paper on both the inside and outside of the studding, 
except the lower inside six feet. From the floor to a 
height of six feet, nail cheap one-inch lumber over build- 
ing paper and put lath and concrete on this as a finish. 
This makes the lower portion of the wall readily clean- 
able as it should be. The portion of the wall above the 
concrete, as well as the entire ceiling, should be fre- 
quently whitewashed. 

Concrete walls have proven very satisfactory and are 
rapidly growing in popularity. 

Ceiling. This should be boarded on the inside with 
matched lumber. The outside, or hay floor above, may 
be built of common, cheap lumber. When, however, no 
hay is stored above, the ceiling should have a dead air 
space, which is secured by using matched lumber and 
paper, both inside and outside, and filling the space be- 
tween with dry straw. 

Stalls and Ties. These should be arranged ana con- 
structed with the following points in view : ( i ) keep- 
ing the cows clean; (2) giving them as much comfort 
as possible; (3) preventing cows from stepping on each 



90 



DAIRY FARMING 





Fig. 19.— Iron Stall. 



Other's' teats; (4) giving the milker comfort during milk- 
ii^g") (5) having a minimum amount of surface for lodg- 
ment of dust; and (6) saving of time in tying. 








Fig. 20.— Iron Stall. 



THE DAIRY HERD 91 

To keep cows clean the stall must be of such length as 
to place the hind feet near the edge of the gutter. In 
order to have comfort, cows should not be confined in 
rigid stanchions, nor should the stalls be too narrow. 
The stepping of cows on their neighbors' teats can be 
prevented only by using some form of partition between 




Fig. 21.-Half stall. 

them. To provide a reasonable amount of comfort for 
the milker the stalls must have ample width and the end 
posts of the partitions should be set about one foot from 
the edge of the gutter. Solid wood partitions or closely 
meshed wire and iron partitions, afford too much sur- 
face for lodgment of dust. Moreover, solid wood par- 
titions obstruct a free circulation of air. The simpler 
the partition the more desirable. 

Stalls and ties like those shown in Figs. 19 and 20 
answer all the requirements in a satisfactory manner. 



92 



DAIRY P ARMING 



The stall shown in Fig. 21 is used by many 
with much satisfaction, but is somewhat open to the 
objection of having too much surface for lodgment of 
dust. 




Fig. 22.— A Cheap and Satisfactory Cow Stall and Manger. 

Rigid stanchions mean rigid confinement and should 
therefore never be used. Various forms of swinging 
stanchions, like those shown in the figures, are used 
with much satisfaction. Movable halter ties, like that 
shown in Fig. 2t„ are used in many leading dairy barns. 



THE DAIRY HERD 93 

The rope or chain is so fastened as to prevent forward 
or backward movements by the cows but permits free 
movement up and down. 




Fig. 23.— Movable Halter Tie. 

Stalls like those shown in Figs. 19 and 20 have the 
advantage of being adjustable. The stanchion is movable, 
thus permitting the stall to be shortened or lengthened, 
according to the size of the cow. Furthermore, the swing 
stanchions, in dispensing with the front end, reduce the 
amount of stall surface, which is particularly noticeable 
in the stalls shown in Figs. 19, 20 and 22. 

In a cold climate, it is desirable to cover the concrete 
floor on which the cows stand with a movable wood plat- 
form. This may be the means of preventing udder 



94 DAIRY FARMING 

troubles and is certain to increase the comfort of cows 
during the cold season. 

Size of Stalls. An average-sized cow requires a stall 
3^ feet wide and 4^ feet long. In nearly all herds, 
however, there are some cows larger and some smaller 
than the average. It is important, therefore, that one 
row of stalls be made to taper somewhat from one end 
to the other. For example, the stalls at one end may 
have dimensions 3'x3'io", which would nicely accommo- 
date two-year-old Jersey heifers. From this end the 
dimensions may be gradually increased until they reach 
4x4' 10" at the opposite end. The latter dimensions 
would accommodate large Holstein-Friesian cows. 

Mangers. These should be constructed with four 
points in view : ( i ) they should be easily cleanable ; 

(2) they should be provided with movable partitions so 
as to prevent cows from stealing feed from each other; 

(3) they should be large enough to prevent cows from 
scattering their feed over the barn floor; and (4) the top 
should be below the cows' noses so as not to interfere 
too much with the circulation of the air in front of the 
cows. 

All of the above features are embodied in the manger 
illustrated in Fig. 22. This manger the Author has had 
placed in the college dairy barn and has found it highly 
satisfactory in all respects. The aim was to secure a 
thoroughly efficient manger with as small an outlay of 
capital as possible. Its construction is as follows : The 
lower three inches are built into the concrete floor. The 
superstructure, which is 20 inches high, 18 inches wide 
at the floor and 36 inches wide at the top, is built of 
14 -inch matched lumber, except the partitions which are 
built of I >^ -inch lumber. Both sides of the lumber are 



THE DAIRY HERD 



95 



planed. The partitions fit snugly into the 3-inch con- 
crete depression, and the entire manger is buih in mova- 
ble sections, each 21 feet long. The sections are held in 
place by means of a small hook at each end, which is 
fastened to the stanchion supports. 




cow STABLE 
FRESH /\IR INLETS 



COW ST/\BL£ 
I rOUL A.IR OUTLETS 



Fig. 24. Fig. '25. 

King system of ventilation. Figure 25 shows two methods of carrying out air. 

The three-inch concrete depression makes it possible 
to water the cows in their stalls. When it is desired to 
clean the manger, the hooks are unfastened and the sec- 
tions turned over, thus leaving the entire manger clear 
for cleaning. 

Gutters. These should be about 15 inches wide and 
four inches deep. A greater depth is liable to injure the 
cows when they happen to slip into the gutter. More- 
over any extra depth means just so much more lifting 



96 DAIRY FARMING 

in removing the manure. Gutters should be perfectly 
tight to prevent loss of liquid manure. 

Ventilation. The best method of stable ventilation 
is that devised by F. H. King. The essential features 
■of this method are the admission of the fresh air near 
the ceiling, and the withdrawal of the impure air from 
near the floor, as illustrated in Figs. 24 and 25. The 
object of admitting the cold, fresh air near the ceiling 
is to warm it before reaching the cows, by contact with 
the warm air at the ceiling. By having the main air 
exits near the floor, less heat will be lost than would be 
the case if the exits were placed at the ceiling; besides 
it is argued that a considerable amount of the impurities 
of the air are found at the floor to which the cows' breath 
is constantly directed. Recent experiments seem to in- 
dicate, however, that at least so far as carbonic acid gas 
is concerned, most of this gas is found at the ceiling. 

Whether most of the impurities are found at the ceil- 
ing or at the floor, it seems advisable to reinforce the 
exits at the floor, by placing a ventilator opening pro- 
vided with a register at the middle of the ceiling so 
that some air may be withdrawn from this point. Dur- 
ing very cold weather it may be desirable to reduce this 
exit to a minimum by closing the register, but during 
warm weather, or when it is desired to lower the barn 
temperature, it should be opened entirely. By having 
one large opening at the middle of the ceiling, there is 
less likelihood of removing any fresh, incoming air than 
would be the case if numerous smaller exits were placed 
near the wall and opening into the same shaft that takes 
up the floor air, an arrangement not infrequently recom- 
mended and used. 

The number and location of inlets and outlets (except 



run DAIRY UliKD 97 

the outlet at the ceiHng) are shown in Fij^. 18. Numer- 
ous small inlets have the advantage of eausing a better 
distribution of the cold, incoming air than could be se- 
cured by fewer, but larger openings. 

On the other hand, the outlets should be few and com- 
paratively large, which will aid in creating draft. 

The fresh air intakes consist of air-tight shafts with 
cross-sectional areas of about 50 square inches. The 
shafts are built right in the v^all, and open near the 
floor on the outside and near the ceiling on the inside. 
It is absolutely necessary to have the outside openings 
at least several feet below the inside openings, otherwise 
the warm inside air would rush out instead of the cold, 
outside air going in. 

The main air outlets may be placed where they are 
least troublesome. In the barn plans herewith presented, 
they are placed in the box stalls and comnumicate with 
the main barn floor by means of registers in the wall. 

The size of these registers is that of the cross-sectional 
area of the shafts. 

To secure effective work with the King system of 
ventilation three things are essential : ( 1 ) to have the 
ventilating shafts air-tight; (2) to have the outlet shafts 
extend to the highest point of the barn; and (3) to have 
the barn as nearly air-tight as possible. 

Hay Loft. With a perfectly tight ceiling and with 
the hay chute in the feed room, there is no objection 
whatever to having a loft above the stable for the stor- 
age of roughage. Indeed such a loft has two distinct 
advantages: it hel])s to keep the stable warm and re- 
duces the labor in feeding. 

Doors. Two doors should be provided at either end 
of the barn, as shown in Fig. 18. The outside doors 



98 



DAIRY FARMING 



may be of the roller type, but on the inside it is desir- 
able to have swing doors. The latter fit tighter and thus 
aid in making the barn warmer during the winter. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



BOX 
STALL 



FELDIT/G ALLE.V 



AJ_L.E-V 



inA|N<l3ER 



GOV/ STALLS 



) 'M. 



CALVE.3 



;vlAN 3ERS 



CEJ^TRAL DRIVEWAY 8' 



MA)-16EF, Z'/i. 



T.M.L^3 Ci/j 



FEELDING ALLEY 



CALVES 



H0R5ES 



ALLEY C3' 



7^14/^54^^^ 



Combination Barn. (From Hoard's Dairyman.) 



A "Switch" Board. This is an invention of Math. 
Michels on whose farm it has proven an absolute protec- 
tion to the milker against the cow's switch (tail) during 
fly season. It consists of an inch board, 8 inches wide 
and 4 feet long suspended from a wire. The latter runs 
close behind the cows and is fastened about 6^ feet 
above the floor. The board slides on the wire and is 
pushed right opposite the milker. 

Any farmer can fix up a board of this kind at a trifling 
expense and positively protect himself from any annoy- 
ance from the cow's switch during milking. 

A Cheap Home Made Stall. Stanchion supports are 
made by running two 2x6-inch planks along both the bot- 
tom and top of the stanchion and supporting the whole 
structure by placing 2x6-inch planks upright, in front of 
each partition. The lower end of these upright planks is 



THE DAIRY HERD 



99 



embedded in the concrete floor while the upper end is 



fastened to the ceihng. 




Fig. 26.— A Cheap Home-made Stall. 



Partitions are made of 1^4 -inch gas pipes cut into 
proper lengths and then bent. One end of the pipe is 
double threaded and fastened to the upright planks by 
means of locknuts. The other end is embedded in the 
concrete floor. See Fig:. 26. 



100 



DAIRY FARMING 




A Good Milk Stool. 




Showing Board Platform Fastened to 2x4's Embedded in the Concrete. 




Cross-Section of Barn Floor. 



THU DAIRY HERD 



100a 



DESCRIPTION OF MODEL DAIRY BARN. 

The plans here presented are for a barn to be used 
exclusively for dairy purposes. The first story or cow 
stable is built of concrete one foot thick, heavily rein- 



^^t^^^^ 



i%e 




Cross-section. 



forced and provided with 48 windows. These windows 
have each 9 panes 9x12 inches which aflford ample light 
required for all purposes. The windows are hinged at 
the bottom, thus permitting them to swing in at the top. 



100b 



DAIRY FARMING 




THE DAIRY HERD 



lOOc 



The second story has a hay storage capacity of 240 
tons, and is of the plank frame, gambrel-roof style, which 
is almost entirely used nowadays in barn construction. 

The inside dimensions of this barn are 36x122 feet. 
The cows face out and there is an eight-foot space 
through the center of the barn which will permit re- 




End Elevation. 



moving the manure from the barn with the manure 
spreader. 

At the south end of the barn there are three rooms, 
two small ones and one large one. One small room is 
used for temporary storage of milk and for keeping milk 
records and composite sample bottles. It also contains 
racks for pails and cans. This room is 8x12 feet and 
occupies the southeast corner of the barn. Adjoining this 



lOOd DAIRY FARMING 

room is one 10x12 feet, in which there is a hay chute and 
a 2x2 feet ventilator exit which communicates with the 
main barn by means of a register. This room is also 
used for storage of barn tools, salt, etc. 

Opposite these two rooms is one 12x18 feet provided 
with two feed spouts which convey the feed from two 
large storage bins overhead. This room also contains a 
hay chute and a 2x2 feet ventilator exit. This room may 
be used as a storage for various barn supplies. 

There are forty cow stalls with platforms ranging in 
length from 4 feet 4 inches to 4 feet 10 inches. This will 
accommodate both large and small cows. The platform on 
one side of the barn has a length of 4 feet 4 inches at 
one end and 4 feet 10 inches on the other, while the plat- 
form on the opposite side has a uniform length of 4 feet 
6 inches. For Holstein-Friesian cows the platforms 
should be three to four inches longer. The stalls are all 
three and one-half feet wide. At the north end of the 
barn there are two large box stalls and also two calf 
pens provided with stanchions. These stalls and pens 
are constructed of galvanized iron pipe held together at 
the top by means of 4X4's. 

There is drainage from the mangers, the feeding alleys 
and the gutters. The main drains consist of 4-inch sewer 
tile and are connected with bell traps placed in the middle 
of the feeding alleys, mangers and gutters. These bell 
traps are provided with both perforated and solid covers. 
The perforated ones are used only when washing the 
barn and when emptying surplus water from the mangers 
after watering the cows. The illustration shows the water 
connected to one end of the concrete manger, and the 
cows are watered in thei manger during the winter. 

The manger is three feet wide across the top, two feet 



THE DAIRY HERD 



lOOe 



deep and provided with movable iron partitions, which 
can readily be thrown out when it is desired to clean the 
manger. There is a ledge at the top of the manger which 
projects in about three inches, and this is a very valuable 
adjunct to the manger because it will prevent cows 
scooping their feed out. 

A feature which 
should be especially 
noted in this barn is 
the perfectly smooth 
walls as shown in 
the illustration. The 
window frames fit 
flush with the con- 
crete walls, thus 
preventing lodgment 
of dust. It will also 
be noticed that the 
barn is provided 
with electric lights 
and a complete sys- 
tem of feed and lit- 
ter carriers. ^'^^ Elevation. 

The King system of ventilation is in use in this barn. 
There are i6 inlets consisting of 5-inch sewer tile, 8 on 
each side of the barn. The air is carried out by three 
ventilating shafts, each two feet square. One of these 
ventilating shafts is a continuation of the silage chute, 
the construction of which will readily be understood from 
the following: 

The two concrete silos shown in the illustration are 
joined to the northeast corner of the barn. The reason 
for placing these silos at this point is to prevent their 





















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lOOf 



DAIRY FARMING 



obscuring any light, and to make possible a drive through 
the center of the barn. By joining the silos we save the 
expense of a silage chute, because the junction of the 
silos with the barn forms a chute which, as has been 
stated, is also used as a ventilating exit. The warm air 
passing through this chute will prevent silage freezing 




view Showing Construction of Box Stalls and Calf Pens. 



in the silo in the winter. The silage chute is also used 
as a hay chute. While the northeast corner appears to 
be rather an exposed situation for silos, it should be 
borne in mind that one of the silos is entirely on the east 
side and is protected on the north and northwest by the 
other silo. We use the protected silo for winter feeding 
and the other for summer feeding. 



THE DAIRY HERD lOOg 

It should be added that there is a perfectly air-tight 
ceiling in this barn, which is a necessity where the clean- 
est milk is to be produced. From a sanitary aspect the 
barn compares favorably with any in the country, and 
from the standpoint of cheapness, convenience and per- 
manency the barn affords many features which are 
worthy of emulation by farmers. 

A brief statement is herewith appended showing the 
cost of the barn and the two silos. This statement in- 
cludes everything but the hauling of the gravel. 

COST 01' DAIRY BARN AND SILOS. 

Carpenter work, including work on 

silos $730.00 

Concrete work, cow stable and silos 703.00 

Labor digging foundation 25.00 

Lumber, excepting doors and win- 
dows 1 ,702.00 

Cement, 437 bbls. at $1.25 546.00 

Windows (50) and doors 136.00 

Stalls for 40 cows, carriers including 
feed, manure, and hay carriers, 

and all tracks 430.00 

Two box stalls and two calf pens, 

made of gas pipe 90.00 

Plumbing and gasoline 215.00 

Painting of barn, two coats 140.00 

Cost of plastering small rooms 52.00 

Electric wiring 42.00 

Eaves Troughs 24.00 

Miscellaneous 50.00 

$4,885.00 



lOOh DAIRY FARMING 

EILECTRIC IvIGHT I^OR FARM BUII.DINGS. 

From the standpoint of comfort, safety, convenience 
and sanitation, electricity furnishes the best light that can 
be obtained for farm uses. The cost, too, is very reason- 
able considering the advantages gained. Hundreds of 
dairy farms are now producing their own electric light 




Note Smooth Walls and Manger. 

and the rapidly increasing popularity of this system of 
illumination fully attests its value for farm purposes. 

Undoubtedly one thing that has stimulated the use of 
electric light on dairy farms is the fact that most of 
these farms are equipped with gasoline engines and the 
further fact that the electricity may be produced and 
stored at the same time that the gasoline engine is separat- 



THE DAIRY HERD 



lOOi 



ing milk, pumping water and doing other farm work. 
Then, too, the large amount of stable work on dairy 
farms makes electric light especially desirable on such 
farms. No matter how conveniently a stable may be 
arranged otherwise, it is an uncomfortable place to work 
in when poorly lighted. Again the element of safety 




View Showing Interior Construction. 

from fire which electricity assures, cannot well be ignored. 
Furthermore, of all lights, electricity is the only one 
that does not consume oxygen. This is a matter of no 
small importance, especially in dwellings where large 
quantities of oxygen are taken out of the air during long 
winter evenings when kerosene, gasoline or acetylene 
are burned. As to the matter of convenience little need 



lOOj 



DAIRY FARMING 



be said here as most people are familiar with the great 
advantages offered by electricity in this respect. 

Apparatus Required. An electric lighting equipment 
consists of a generator or dynamo, some motive power 
such as a gasoline engine, a storage battery and a switch- 
board. The generator or dynamo produces the electric 
current and requires as a rule from two to three horse 
power to operate it. The storage battery stores the elec- 
tricity for future use, thus making it possible to obtain 
electric light when the dynamo is not running. The 
switchboard controls the electric current and shows the 
voltage of the storage battery and the rate at which 
electricity is being supplied to, and taken away from, the 
battery. 

When purchasing a gasoline engine for farm use, it is 
wise to consider the possible future use of electric light 
so that enough power may be had to generate electricity 
when a plant is finally installed. 

It is desirable to place the dynamo, battery and switch- 
board reasonably close together and a clean, dry place 
must be selected for them. The storage battery must be 
placed where there is no danger from frost. A storage 
battery will prove more efficient at 65 to 70° F. than at 
lower temperatures. 

Wiring the Buildings. A barn may be wired at any 
time for electric light, but a house should be wired at 
the time it is built so that the wires may be concealed. 
Many also prefer to conceal the wires in the barn. Those 
who are going to build dwellings in the near future 
should not fail to consider the possibility of using electric 
light so that the wires may be properly installed. It is 
important, too, to get the right sized wire. The size of 
the wire is determined by the voltage (electric pressure) 



THB DAIRY HERD IQOk 

and the distance the electric current is to be carried. 
Farm lighting plants are usually of the low voltage type, 
30 volts being common, though higher voltage may often 
be carried to advantage, especially when the current is 
to be carried a long distance. The lower the voltage and 
the longer the distance the current is to be carried, the 
heavier the wires required. 

Selecting an Outfit. There are many different kinds 
of electrical equipments to be had for farm lighting and 
careful study of them should be made before purchasing 
an outfit. Usually all the electricity for lighting purposes 
is stored in the battery at the time the gasoline engine is 
doing the regular farm work, such as separating milk, 
pumping water, etc., and the size of the dynamo should 
be such that the battery may be sufficiently charged while 
this work is being done. Too much emphasis cannot be 
laid upon the importance of getting an outfit of ample 
capacity. A fifty-light plant is none too large for an 
average dairy farm, and the dynamo and battery should 
be large enough to keep up the supply of electricity with 
two or three hours daily charging of the batteries. 

In purchasing an outfit, get a guarantee on the whole 
plant, and especially on the lasting quality of the battery 
and on the time required daily to keep the batteries 
charged. 

Operation of Plant. It should be remembered that 
the dynamo produces the electric current, which, for con- 
venience, is stored in the storage battery. Without a 
storage battery it would be necessary to run the dynamo 
whenever light is required and this would obviously be 
undesirable. The dynamo should be run and electricity 
stored at the time the gasoline engine is doing other 
farm work. This reduces the expense of power and time 



1001 DAIRY FARMING 

to minimum. Indeed under these conditions the plant 
will require very little attention. 

Complete specifications and directions for operating an 
electric plant are furnished by the manufacturer with 
each plant. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

HANDLING FARM MANURE. 

Value of Manure Per Cow. The value of the 
manure from a cow depends primarily upon the char- 
acter of the feed supplied her. Feeds rich in fertilizing 
constituents will produce manure correspondingly rich 
in them. On an average 75% of the fertilizing con- 
stituents in feeds are recovered in the manure. The 
Cornell station finds that the value of the manure from 
cows averaging 1000 pounds live weight, is $29.27 per 
cow per year. This may be regarded as a very fair 
average. 

Relative Value of Liquid and Solid Manure. The 
urine, as a rule, is much richer in fertilizing constituents 
than the dung. It contains more than half the nitrogen 
and nearly all of the potash voided by the animal. Prac- 
tically all of the phosphoric acid, however, is found in 
the solid excreta. The fact that the larger portion of 
the fertilizing constituents is found in the urine, empha- 
sizes the importance of carefully saving all this portion 
of the voidings. 

How to Save the Urine. To save all of the liquid 
manure, it is necessary, in the first place, to have water- 
tight gutters and floors. Nothing is better in this respect 
than concrete. 

The next requirement is a sufficient amount of clean, 
porous bedding to absorb all of the liquid. Straw, 
especially if cut up somewhat, makes excellent bedding 

101 



102 DAIRY FARMING 

material. It is clean and holds a great deal of moisture. 
Planer shavings also answer the purpose satisfactorily. 

In addition to this it is desirable to use some powdered 
absorbents like ground phosphate rock and gypsum. 
These materials not only absorb moisture but also absorb 
ammonia as it is liberated from the manure, thus saving 
valuable volatile manurial constituents and at the same 
time purifying the air of the barn. 

Sources of Loss of Manurial Constituents. Losses 
of manurial constituents may be considered under two 
heads: (i) those occasioned by leaching, and (2) those 
caused by bacterial action or fermentation processes. 
Where no precaution against leaching and fermentation 
are taken, more than half the value of the manure is 
easily lost. 

Loss Through Leaching. Experiments have shown 
that manure as ordinarily placed in a pile will lose about 
50% of its value when left exposed to the weather for a 
period of six months. Every rain washes a certain per- 
centage of the soluble manurial constituents away from 
the pile. That heavy losses occur in this way is evident 
from the dark liquor which runs away from a manure 
heap that has been exposed to the rain. Frequently for 
convenience of handling, the manure is piled close to the 
barn and directly under the eaves, where the amount 
of water that pours over it becomes very considerable 

Losses from leaching can be entirely avoided by placing 
the manure in a shallow concrete pit provided with a roof. 
Even the concrete floor may be done away with if the 
ground is clayey, closely packed and so sloped that no 
water from without can drain into the pit. No farmer 
can afford to be without a covered storage for manure. 



riiu uAikv iiLiiw 1U3 

Losses Through Fermentation. Manure is a medium 
exceedingly rich in Ijaclerial '' life. Many species of bac- 
teria are at work decomposing the organic matter, break- 
ing u]) higher compounds into lower compounds and 
accomplishing what is ordinarily designated the rotting 
of the manure. Jn the fermentation or rotting process 
the nitrogen compounds are broken up into ammonia, 
which readily escapes from the manure pile. Evidence 
of such escape is found in the amnioniacal odors that 
emanate from loosely packed manure, such, for example, 
as that procured from horses. 

I'his amnioniacal fermentation can be largely reduced 
l)y packing the manure tight so as to exclude the air 
as nuich as possible. Most of the bacteria concerned in 
the lilicralion ol ammonia must have air for their devel- 
opment, and hence their action is reduced in pro[)ortion 
as the air is excluded from the manure heap. 

On the other hand, some species of uacteria con- 
cerned in the liberation of nitrogen, namely, the denit- 
rifying bacteria, require no air for their growth and 
development. Yet the loss from this class of bacteria 
is relatively so small that, while the exclusion of air 
favors their development, every effort should be made to 
keej) the manure heap as air-tight as possible, so as to 
minimize the loss from the air-loving bacteria. 

Ammonia or Nitrogen "F-ixers." While the loss of 
ammonia from the manure heap can be materially reduced 
by tight packing, more or less of it is bound to be formed 
under the best packing jxxssible. To prevent the escape 
of this ammonia it is necessary to add to the manure 
something which will "fix" or hold the ammonia. Mati-- 
rials used for this purpose are known as nitrogen or am- 



* For definition of bacteria, see page 146. 



104 DAIRY FARMING 

monia fixers. Ground phosphate rock and gypsum are 
excellent materials to use for this purpose. These ma- 
terials should be added to the gutter in the barn, since 
they not only act as ammonia fixers, but are also excellent 
absorbents. On the whole the ground phosphate rock 
is preferable to the gypsum. The latter is sulphate of 
lime, and is commonly known as land plaster. Dry earth 
containing a great deal of humus is also valuable as 
an absorbent and ammonia fixer. 

Hauling Manure Directly Upon the Land. If the 
manure can be hauled upon ground where there is no 
danger of its being washed away, the most economical 
plan is to spread it upon the land as quickly as it is 
formed. Under such conditions there will be practically 
no loss from leaching and fermentation, and, moreover, 
what is of no little importance, the manure is handled 
with the least amount of labor. As a rule it is safest 
to spread the manure upon some growing crop. 

Manure Carriers. A convenient and labor-saving 
piece of apparatus upon a dairy farm is an elevated 
manure carrier like that shown on page 90. The con- 
venience afforded by a carrier is especially great during 
the winter, when much manure must be removed from 
the barn. 

Manure Spreaders. No dairy farmer can afford to 
be without a manure spreader. It quickly pays for itself 
in the saving of labor and has the additional advantage of 
insuring an even distribution of manure on the field. 



THE DAIRY HERD 



105 




CHAPTER XV. 

POWER ON THE FARM. 

The use of some form of power upon farms has fre- 
quently been recommended in the past, but never before 
has its use been more urgent than at the present time. 
The increasing scarcity of labor, the rapid increase of 
hand separators and silos, and the general convenience 
it affords, have made power an actual necessity upon 
progressive dairy farms. 

The kind of power needed upon a dairy farm depends 
upon certain conditions. If a tread power is used for 
exercising the bull, this will serve satisfactorily for sep- 
arating milk, pumping water, and doing other light work. 
Where a milk house is used and butter is made upon the 
farm a small steam engine may be made to do any light 
work economically. But the use of either the tread power 
or the small steam engine fails to provide the necessary 
power for cutting corn for the silo, sawing wood, grind- 
ing feed, or doing other heavy work. 

Every modern dairy farm must have a silo, and it is 
at silo filling time that we usually experience the great- 
est need for some form of power. With none of our own 
we are obliged to hire or borrow, a practice which often 
compels us to wait till the corn is past its prime. More- 
over it is frequently impossible to hire power, no mattei 
how much we may wish to do so. Where good silage is 
desired it should be made at the proper time, and this 
can be done with certainty only when we own the power. 

Where power for the heavier work can not be con- 

106 



THE DAIRY HERD 



107 



veniently hired or borrowed, it is believed that the best 
solution for the farm power problem is the gasoline en- 
gine. Such an engine can be used for a great variety of 
purposes and practically every day of the year. 

Besides running the ensilage cutter, cream separator 
and possibly a milking machine, the engine may be used 
to pump water, to run the washing machine, corn sheller, 
grindstone, saw, churn and grist mill. When placed as 



GRI^r MILL 



>5/?uv 



ENGINE. 



■S£f/1R^TO^ 



COONTCfi iMAFT' 



GRIND COP/V 

■S ro/V£ •SH£U.£R 



\AJf\SH MJ^CHIfve 



Fig. 28.— Possible Uses of Gasoline Engine. 



shown in Fig. 28 several of these machines may be run 
at the same time. 

Many dairy farmers have felt justified in going to the 
expense of purchasing gasoline power solely for running 
the cream separator. For this purpose a two-horse power 
engine suffices ; but it would be greater economy to in- 
crease the original outlay somewhat and secure an eight- 
horse power engine, one that could be used for the heavier 



108 DAIRY FARMING 

work of cutting ensilage and corn stover, as well as run- 
ning a saw and grist mill. 

This is an age of machinery, and we believe the time 
is not far distant when the farmer will make use of 
power whenever this can be made to take the place of 
hired labor. Power will not only afford greater con- 
venience but will curtail the running expenses of the 
farm. 

If, for example, we assume that one hour is required 
daily in running the separator, and another in pump- 
ing water for stock, the total time consumed in 
this work in one year would be 730 hours, or y;^ days of 
10 hours each. At $1 a day, the cost of separating and 
pumping would amount to ^yT, a year. With a gasoline 
engine running the pump and separator at the same 
time, this work could be done in 365 hours. Allowing 
6c per hour for gasoline and oil, which is a high esti- 
mate, the cost of doing the above work with an engine 
would be $21.90, or less than one-third of what it can 
be done for with hired labor. This saving is equivalent 
to about 25 per cent on the investment of the engine, if 
used for no other purpose than separating milk and 
pumping water. 

At silo filling time the engine should be mounted on 
a suitable base near the silo, where it is expected to re- 
main only during the filling of the silo. The remainder 
of the year it may be placed as indicated in the above 
illustration. 

There are plenty of simple and smooth-running gaso- 
line engines upon the market, and in purchasing care 
should be taken to get one in which these two qualities 
are most conspicuous. 

A possible objection to the use of gasoline engines for 



THE DAIRY HERD 109 

dairy purposes is the trouble from gas odor where there 
is any tendency to laxness in the care of machinery. 
Where precautions are taken against leakage of gas or 
gasoline, and where the exhaust is properly conducted 
away, there should be no trouble from gas odors. 

The fuel cost of running a gasoline engine may be 
stated as follows: When gasoline is worth loc per 
gallon, gasoline power will cost ic per brake horse 
power per hour. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

DISEASES AND AILMENTS OE DAIRY CATTLE. 

Prevention. The old adage, "An ounce of preven- 
tion is worth a pound of cure," is as true to-day as 
ever. The common ailments with which cattle are 
afiflicted can be largely prevented by correct feeding, 
comfortable and sanitary housing, gentle treatment, and 
by using every precaution possible against infection from 
contagious diseases. 

Digestive disorders are the result of injudicious feed- 
ing, and these may be the forerunner of a retinue of 
various other disorders. Exposure to severe cold and 
cold rains, and confinement in foul and unventilated 
stables are predisposing causes to various diseases. Many 
ailments are caused, either directly or indirectly, by al- 
lowing cows to lie on cold concrete floors, by chasing 
with dogs and by compelling them to walk and stand on 
slippery, highly inclined floors. 

Great aid has been rendered in the prevention of dis- 
eases through the rapid development of medical science 
in pointing out the nature and causes of the various dis- 
eases with which cattle are afflicted. Every dairyman 
should have an intelligent understanding of the role 
which bacteria (for definition of bacteria see p. 146) 
play in the dissemination of diseases which could be 
largely avoided by proper quarantine and methods of 
disinfection. 

Quarantine and Disinfection. By quarantining is 
meant the separation of the diseased from the undiseased 

110 



THE DAIRY HERD 111 

animals. If an animal is known to be affected with some 
transmissible disease, its prompt removal will usually 
spare the rest of the animals in the herd from the dis- 
ease, especially if sr.ch removal is accompanied by proper 
methods of disinfection. The latter refers to the destruc- 
tion of the causal agents of the disease by the use of 
germicides or disinfectants, substances which have the 
power of killing bacteria and allied organisms. 

Disinfectants. The following is a list of well-known 
disinfectants : 



Boiling water applied for 20 minutes. 

A 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. 

A 2 per cent solution of zenolium. 

A 2 per cent solution of chloro-naptholeum. 

A 5 per cent solution of copper sulfate. 

A solution of 1-2000 of mercuric chloride. 

A 2 per cent solution of creolin. 

A I- 1000 solution of chlorid of zinc 



Purgatives. A purgative is a substance used to in- 
duce action of the bowels. Among the common purga- 
tives the following may be mentioned: i to 2 pints of 
raw linseed oil ; a mixture of i pound of Epsom salts 
and I to 2 ounces of ginger dissolved in 2 pints of warm 
water ; i pound of Glauber salts dissolved in water ; or 
I pint of castor oil. 

As a rule the best thing to do at the first signs of ill- 
ness, such as loss of appetite, failure to chew the cud, 
dull eyes, dry muzzle, parched skin, rough coat, etc., 
is to administer a good purgative. This alone is fre- 
quently sufficient to relieve the trouble. 



112 DAIRY PARMiNG 

MII.K FEVER. 

Causes. Overfeeding, lack of exercise, impure air, 
constipation, and drinking cold water are common causes 
of milk fever. Withdrawing all the milk from the udder 
during the first 24 hours after calving is claimed to be 
conducive to the disease. Furthermore, heavy milkers 
are far more subject to the disease than medium or small 
milkers. 

Symptoms. Restlessness followed by a weakening of 
the muscles, causing the animal finally to stagger and 
fall. The cow usually lies on her breast bone with her 
head completely drawn around to one side. The udder 
becomes soft and empty, pulse weak and rapid, the tem- 
perature falls below normal, and the animal may become 
completely unconscious. 

Treatment. Fortunately there is available now a very 
simple, sure, and inexpensive treatment for milk fever. 
The treatment consists in filling the udder with sterile 
air by means of a syringe which draws the air through 
a tube containing absorbent cotton. Such a syringe can 
be obtained at very small cost from the manufacturers 
who advertise extensively through the dairy press, and 
every dairyman should possess one so as to be prepared 
to meet emergencies promptly. 

Before injecting the air, the hands, teats, udder, and 
the tube that is to be inserted into the teats, should be 
carefully disinfected. This done, each quarter of the 
udder is thoroughly inflated with air, kneading and rub- 
bing the udder as much as possible during the process 
to secure a thorough and rapid diffusion of the air. As 
soon as each quarter is filled, a wide band is tied around 
the top of the teat to prevent leakage of air. These 



THE DAIRY HERD 113 

bands should not be drawn any tighter than necessary 
and may be removed soon after the cow gets on her feet. 
Repeat the treatment if necessary. 

The treatment above described usually brings relief 
within a few hours. In a number of emergencies cows 
have been successfully treated by pumping unfiltered air 
into the udder with a bicycle pump ; but this is liable to 
result in serious infection of the udder and should be 
practiced only in an emergency. 

The injection of a gallon of warm, soapy water into 
the rectum is also desirable. Never administer drenches 
when the animal is partially unconscious. 

ABORTION. 

By abortion is meant the premature birth of the calf. 
Two forms of this ailment are common: (i) con- 
tagious abortion caused by bacteria; and (2) accidental 
abortion caused by a serious nervous shock. The latter 
may result from external or internal injuries, drinking 
cold or stagnant water, bad nutrition, exposure to in- 
clement weather, impure atmosphere, and various con- 
stitutional diseases. Whenever abortions occur appar- 
ently without cause, they should be treated as contagious. 

Contagious Abortion. This is a very menacing dis- 
ease among dairy cattle. It is caused by bacteria which 
find their way into the reproductive organs. The disease 
can be successfully combatted only by rigid methods of 
disinfection and prompt quarantining of the aborting 
animals. The dead offspring, afterbirth, and stable litter 
should at once be burned, or buried and covered with 
quick lime. The stalls and walls should be washed with 
a I -1000 solution of corrosive sublimate, while the floor 
may be disinfected with a liberal amount of quick lime. 



114 DAIRY FARMING 

The vagina and uterus should be thoroughly disinfected 
daily with chlorid of zinc, creolin, or corrosive sublimate 
solution of proper strength until the cow ceases discharg- 
ing. The same antiseptic treatment should be applied 
frequently to the external genitals and adjacent region 
of uninfected cows. If the afterbirth is retained longer 
than 24 hours it should be removed by hand. 

Cows that have aborted should not be bred until they 
have ceased discharging, and it is important to keep them 
from the rest of the herd until they have dropped a full- 
grown calf. 

A prolific means of spreading the infection of this dis- 
ease is the bull. A bull that has served infected cows 
will infect other cows he serves unless his penis and 
sheath have been thoroughly disinfected. One to two 
quarts of 2 per cent coal tar disinfectant worked up into 
the sheath will answer the purpose satisfactorily, 

GARGET. 

Causes. Injuries of the udder, overfeeding, exposure 
to severe cold, overcrowding of the udder by skipping a 
milking, and germ infection. 

Symptoms. Watery, stringy milk, frequently contain- 
ing blood; swelling and hardening of one, two, or all 
quarters of the udder, which has a more or less reddish, 
inflamed appearance; and the formation of pus in the 
more advanced stages. 

Treatment. Give ij4 pounds of Epsom salts and i 
ounce of ginger, dissolved in a quart of tepid water. Sup- 
port the udder by means of a wide bandage tied at the 
top line of the animal, and pack a layer of bran between 
the bandage and the diseased portion of the udder. Heat 
the bran by pouring hot water over it. The hot water 



THE DAIRY HERD 115 

treatment should be repeated at short intervals and should 
be followed by thorough rubbing of the udder with lard 
or raw linseed oil, a treatment which may be continued 
to advantage for 20 minutes. The rubbing materially 
relieves the swelling and stimulates the secretion of milk. 
It is important also to milk the diseased quarter or quar- 
ters clean at short intervals. The air treatment for milk 
fever has also been recommended for garget. 

NON-INFECTIOUS "CALF SCOURS." 

Causes. Feeding cold, dirty, old, or too much, milk ; 
drinking cold or impure water ; irregularities in feeding ; 
feeding from unscalded buckets ; and confinement in dark, 
cold, or filthy stalls. 

Treatment. Reduce the amount of milk ; feed the 
milk fresh and at body temperature ; feed not less than 
three times a day, and use only clean, sterilized milk 
buckets. Give only pure water at body temperature, and 
add formalin to the milk in the proportion of one part 
formalin to 4,000 parts of milk until the diarrhea or 
"scours" is checked. The scouring is usually due to the 
action of fermentative or putrefactive bacteria which are 
killed or checked by the action of the formalin. 

INFECTIOUS ''calf SCOURS." 

This disease is commonly known as white scours and 
is caused by bacteria. It afifects calves usually from a 
few hours to a few days old, and is very fatal. The dis- 
charges are usually of a rather light color and have an 
offensive odor. Medicine is of little avail. The disease 
must therefore be combatted by methods of prevention. 
Washing the vagina of the cow with disinfectant solu- 
tion shortly before calving, disinfecting the navel of the 



116 DAIRY FARMING 

new-born calf at short intervals for a few days, and plac- 
ing the calf in a disinfected stall, are good measures of 
prevention. 

INDIGESTION. 

Causes. Overfeeding; feeding too much coarse, indi- 
gestible feed ; sudden changes of feed ; stale, moldy, frosted 
or decomposing feeds ; irregularities of feeding ; and lack 
of exercise. 

Symptoms. Loss of appetite, suspended rumination, 
dull, sickly appearance, and usually constipation. 

Treatment. Feed light ration containing laxative and 
green feeds, such as linseed meal, pasture, roots, silage, 
etc. Supply plenty of water and give i to i^^ pounds 
of Epsom salts and i ounce ginger, or i to 2 pints of 
raw linseed oil, according to the degree of constipation. 

RETENTION OE AFTERBIRTH. 

If the afterbirth does not come away within 48 hours 
it should be removed by hand. Carefully disinfect the 
hand and arm, grease the same and insert into the womb, 
where the afterbirth must be carefully loosened from the 
button-like projections to which it is attached. As soon 
as removed, flush out the vagina and womb with warm 
disinfectant solution. 

When cows are provided with laxative feed and warm 
water shortly before and after calving, the afterbirth will 
almost always drop away in due time. If the bowels are 
not perfectly loose at calving time, administer a purga- 
tive. 

The retention of the afterbirth for a longer period than 
48 hours will cause it gradually to decompose and slough 
off, causing a foul discharge from the vagina and seri- 



THE DAIRY HERD 117 

ously impairing the health of the animal. Blood poison- 
ing may also result from the prolonged retention of the 
afterbirth. 

INVERSION OF THE WOMB. 

Severe straining after calving may cause the further 
portion of the womb to protrude through the opening 
leading into it, thus causing an inversion of the organ. 
In this inverted condition a portion or all of it may pass 
out of the vagina. As soon as this is noticed, wash and 
disinfect the protruded portion and push it back into its 
normal position. This done, apply a truss or pessary to 
hold the womb in position until the straining or expul- 
sive movements cease. 

TUBERCULOSIS. 

Cause. This disease is caused by a specific organism 
known as the tubercle bacillus. The germs are commonly 
inhaled, though they may also be taken into the body 
through the food. Unsanitary stabling, lack of nourish- 
ment, and inherent constitutional weakness, are greatly 
responsible for the prevalence of this disease. 

Symptoms. A short cough, enlargement of the lymph 
glands at the throat, emaciation, and a general unthrifty 
appearance. In its early stages it is difificult, however, to 
detect the disease except by the tuberculin test. 

The Tuberculin Test. The usefulness of this test as 
a diagnostic agent rests upon the fact that when a sub- 
stance called "tuberculin" is injected under the skin of 
an animal, the injection is followed by a rise of tempera- 
ture in infected animals, while in those unaffected the 
temperature remains the same. It must be added, how- 
ever, that in the last stages of the disease, tuberculin fails 



118 DAIRY r ARMING 

as a diagnostic agent, but this is of little consequence 
since the disease is readily recognized in these stages by 
a physical examination. 

Method of Making the Tuberculin Test. In making 
this test the following particulars must be observed : 

1. Secure the necessary tuberculin from the govern- 
ment. 

2. Secure a clinical thermometer, a sharp, hollow 
needle, and a graduated, hypodermic syringe from deal- 
ers in veterinary instruments. 

3. Make the test during the cooler season of the year. 

4. Do not test cows shortly before or after calving. 

5. Do not test cows that are in heat, or suffering from 
garget or other diseases. 

6. Do not allow cows to drink very cold water. 

7. Keep the animals in a normal condition as to feed, 
confinement, etc., during the test. 

8. Do not test animals which show a temperature as 
high as 103° F. 

Proceed with the test as follows : First ascertain the 
normal temperature of the cows by holding a clinical 
thermometer in the rectum for about five minutes. Three 
observations are necessary : One at 6 a. m., another at 
noon, and the last at 6 p. m. At 10 p. m., the same day, 
inject under the skin at the neck or shoulder, 2 cubic 
centimeters of tuberculin for animals of about 1,000 
pounds live weight and proportionally more for heavier 
cows. At 6 o'clock the next morning take the tempera- 
ture again as before, but at intervals of two hours until 
five or six readings have been taken. If the maximum 
temperature after the injection is two or more degrees 
higher than it was before the injection of the tuberculin, 
the animal is considered tuberculous. If the rise of tern- 



THE DAIRY HERD 119 

perature is one and a half degrees, the case may be con- 
sidered suspicious. 

The needle and place of injection should be disinfected, 
and care should be exercised not to excite the cows dur- 
ing any period of the test. Do not retest for tuberculosis 
within 60 days. As a rule every cow in the herd should 
be tested once a year for tuberculosis. 

BARRENNESS. 

Causes. Lack of exercise, improper feeding, in-and- 
in breeding, closing of the mouth of the womb, and an 
acid condition of the vagina. 

Treatment. If overfat reduce the amount of feed and 
give plenty of exercise. If the mouth of the womb is 
closed, open by inserting the forefinger or by applying 
solid extract of Belladonna to the part. An acid con- 
dition of the vagina may be overcome by thorough syring- 
ing with 2 per cent solution of bicarbonate of soda a 
few hours previous to service. A treatment much recom- 
mended lately is known as the yeast treatment and is 
used as follows : Dis.solve an ordinary compressed yeast 
cake in a cup of warm water and allow to ferment. Add 
this to a quart of warm water and use to wash out the 
vagina some hours before service. The vagina should 
be washed out with soapy water just previous to the 
injection of the yeast solution. 

BLOAT OR HOVEN. 

Causes. Overeating, suddenly turning cows on rich, 
green feed, like clover pasture, and fermentation of the 
feed. There is as a rule a great deal of gas produced, 
causing a great distention of the left side. 

Treatment. Immediately place a gag in the mouth. 



120 DAIRY FARMING 

and in mild cases, give an ounce of spirits of turpentine 
and one-half pint of raw linseed oil. Keep the animal 
moving and pour cold water on the loins. When relief 
comes, administer a purgative. 

In severe cases tap the left side (paunch) with a 
slender knife or a trocar. Tap at a point equidistant 
from the point of the hip, the last rib, and the spinal 
column. 

TEAT TROUBLES. 

Hard Milkers. Hard milking is caused by too small 
an opening in the teat. Enlarge the opening by using a 
teat bistoury when the cow is in full flow of milk. 

Sore or Chapped Teats. Due to exposure to cold, 
wet weather and rough handling. Treat with lard or 
vaseline. 

Warts. May be removed by applying lunar caustic. 

Closed or Obstructed Teats. Caused by injury or 
clotted milk. Keep open by inserting a milk tube. 

Leaky Teats. Prevent unusual distention by milking 
three or four times daily. If this is not sufficient, a fairly 
tight fitting bandage, like the finger of a glove, may be 
placed around the teat. 

STRINGY OR ROPEY MILK. 
This is due to certain species of bacteria which find 
their way into the udder through the teats. These bac- 
teria are associated with filth and the trouble must be 
overcome by keeping cows away from filthy places. 
This trouble should not be confused with garget. 

BLOODY MILK. 

This is usually due to an injury to the udder. Bathe 
the udder with hot water and apply lard. 



THE DAIRY HERD 121 

SELF-SUCKING COWS. 
Prevent by putting a halter on the cow with a strong, 
stiff piece of leather running over the nose. Fill this 
strip of leather with sharp nails. 

Lieu. 

Two per cent coal tar disinfectants are usually used 
for killing lice. The Oklahoma station recommends a 
"kerosene emulsion/' which is made by using ^ pound 
hard soap, 2 gallons of a cheap grade of kerosene and 
I gallon of water. Cut up the soap and dissolve in hot 
water ; then add the kerosene and thoroughly mix. Be- 
fore applying to the animals dilute this mixture with 
7 gallons of water. Apply by means of a sponge, brush, 
or spray pump. 

WARBLES OR GRUBS. 

These are found just below the skin in the backs of 
cattle and constitute the larval form of the ox bot-fly 
or heel-fly. As they develop they cause swellings in 
the back and are thus easily recognized. Wherever there 
is a swelling there is also an opening in the skin through 
which the grubs may be easily squeezed and killed. They 
may also be destroyed by the application of kerosene. 



PART 11. 

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 



CHAPTER XVIL 



MILK. 



Milk, in a broad sense, may be defined as the normal 
secretion of the mammary glands of animals that suckle 
their young. It is the only food found in Nature con- 
taining all the elements necessary to sustain life. More- 
over it contains these elements in the proper propor- 
tions and in easily digestible and assimilable form. 




Microscopic appearance of milk showing relative size of fat globules and 
bacteria. — Russell's Dairy Bacteriology. 

Physical Properties. Milk is a whitish opaque fluid 
possessing a sweetish taste and a faint odor suggestive 
of cows' breath. It has an amphioteric reaction, that is, 

123 



124 DAIRY FARMING 

it is both acid and alkaline. This double reaction is due 
largely to acid and alkaline salts and possibly to small 
quantities of organic acids. 

Milk has an average normal specific gravity of 1.032, 
with extremes rarely exceeding 1.029 ^"^ ^-^ZS- After 
standing a few^ moments it loses its homogenous character. 
Evidence of this we have in the "rising of the cream." 
This is due to the fact that milk is not a perfect solution 
but an emulsion. All of the fat, the larger portion of the 
casein, and part of the ash are in suspension. 

In consistency milk is slightly more viscous than water, 
the viscosity increasing with the decrease in temperature. 
It is also exceedingly sensitive to odors, possessing great 
absorption properties. This teaches the necessity of plac- 
ing milk in clean pure surroundings. 

Chemical Composition. The composition of milk is 
very complex and variable, as will be seen from the fol- 
lowing figures : 

Average Composition of Normal Milk. A com- 
pilation of figures from various American Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Water 87.1;^ 

Butter fat 39^ 

Casein 2.9;^ 

Albumen 5^ 

Sugar , 4-9^ 

Ash 7^ 

Fibrin Trace. 

Galactase Trace. 



100. 0^ 



The great variations in the composition of milk are 
shown by the figures from Koenig, given below : 



PRODUCTS 




Maximum. M 


inimur 


90.69 


80.32 


6.47 


1.67 


4- 23 


1.79 


1.44 


■25 


6.03 


2. II 


1. 21 


•35 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 125 

Water 

Fat 

Casein 

Albumen 

Sugar 

A.sh 

These figures represent quite accurately the maximum 
and minimum composition of milk except that the maxi- 
mum for fat is too low. The author has known cows 
to yield milk testing 7.6% fat, and records show tests 
even higher than this. 

BUTTER FAT. 

This is the most valuable as well as the most variable 
constituent of milk. It constitutes about 83% of butter 
and is an indispensable constituent of the many kinds of 
whole milk cheese now found upon the market. It also 
measures the commercial value of milk and cream, and 
is used as an index of the value of milk for butter and 
cheese production. 

Physical Properties. Butter fat is suspended in milk 
in the form of extremely small globules numbering about 
100,000,000 per drop of milk. These globules vary con- 
siderably in size in any given sample, some being five 
times as large as others. The size of the globules is 
affected mostly by the period of lactation. As a rule the 
size decreases and the number increases with the advance 
of the period. In strippers' milk the globules are some- 
times so small as to render an efficient separation of the 
cream and the churning of same impossible. 

The size of the fat globules also varies with different 
breeds. In the Jersey breed the diameter of the globule 



126 DAIRY FARMING 

is one eight-thousandth of an inch, in the Holstein one 
twelve-thousandth, while the average for all breeds is 
about one ten-thousandth. 

Night's milk usually has smaller globules than morn- 
ing's. The size of the globules also decreases with the 
age of the cow. 

The density or specific gravity of butter fat at ioo° F. 
is .91 and is quite constant. Its melting point varies 
between wide limits, the average being 92° F. 

Composition of Butter Fat. According to Richmond, 
butter fat has the following composition : 

Butyrin 3.85 ) 

Caproin 3 • 60 I Soluble or volatile. 

Caprylin 55 i 



Caprin 1.90 

Laurin 7 . 40 

Myristin 20.20 

Palmitin 25.70 

Stearin i .80 

Olein, etc 35-00 



Insoluble or 
non-volatile. 



This shows butter fat to be composed of no less than 
nine distinct fats, which are formed by the union of 
glycerine with the corresponding fatty acids. Thus, buty- 
rin is a compound of glycerine and butyric acid ; palmitin, 
a compound of glycerine and palmitic acid, etc. The 
most important of these acids are palmitic, oleic, and 
butyric. 

Palmitic acid is insoluble, melts at 144° F., and forms 
(with stearic acid) the basis of hard fats. 

Oleic acid is insoluble, melts at 57° F., and forms the 
basis of soft fats. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 127 

Butyric acid is soluble and is a liquid which solidifies 
at — 2° F. and melts again at 28° F, 

Insoluble Fats. A study of these fats is essential in 
elucidating the variability of the churning temperature 
of cream. As a rule this is largely determined by the 
relative amounts of hard and soft fats present in butter 
fat. Other conditions the same, the harder the fat the 
higher the churning temperature. Scarcely any two milks 
contain exactly the same relative amounts of hard and 
soft fats, and it is for this reason that the churning tem- 
perature is such a variable one. 

The relative amounts of hard and soft fats are influ- 
enced by: 

1. Breeds, 

2. Feeds. 

3. Period of lactation. 

4. Individuality of cows. 

The butter fat of Jerseys is harder than that of Hol- 
steins and, therefore, requires a relatively high churning 
temperature, the difference being about six degrees. 

Feeds have an important influence upon the character 
of the butter fat. Cotton seed meal and bran, for example, 
materially increase the percentage of hard fats. Gluten 
feeds and linseed meal, on the other hand, produce a soft 
butter fat. 

With the advance of the period of lactation the per- 
centage of hard fat increases. This chemical change, to- 
gether with the physical change which butter fat under- 
goes, makes churning difficult in the late period of lac- 
tation. 

The individuality of the cow also to a great extent 
influences the character of the butter fat. It is inherent 



128 DAIRY FARMING 

in some cows to produce a soft butter fat, in others to 
produce a hard butter fat, even in cows of the same breed. 

Soluble Fats, The soluble or volatile fats, of which 
butyrin is the most important, give milk and sweet cream 
butter their characteristic flavors. Butyrin is found only 
in butter fat and distinguishes this from all vegetable 
and other animal fats. 

The percentage of soluble fats decreases with the period 
of lactation, also with the feeding of dry feeds and those 
rich in protein. Succulent feeds and those rich in carbo- 
hydrates, according to experiments made in Holland and 
elsewhere, increase the percentage of soluble fats. This 
may partly account for the superiority of the flavor of 
June butter. 

It may be proper, also, to discuss under volatile or 
soluble fats those abnormal flavors that are imparted to 
milk, cream, and butter by weeds like garlic and wild 
onions, and by various feeds such as beet tops, rape, par- 
tially spoiled silage, etc. These flavors are undoubtedly 
due to abnormal volatile fats. 

Cows should never be fed strong flavored feeds shortly 
before milking. When this is done the odors are sure 
to be transmitted to the milk and the products therefrom. 
When, however, feeds of this kind are fed shortly after 
milking no bad effects will be noticed at the next milking. 

Albumenoids. These are nitrogenous compounds 
which give milk its high dietetic value. Casein, albumen, 
globulin, and nuclein form the albumenoids of milk, the 
casein and albumen being by far the most important. 

Casein. This is a white colloidal substance, possessing 
neither taste nor smell. It is the most important tissue- 
forming constituent of milk and forms the basis of an 
almost endless variety of cheese. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 129 

The larger portion of the casein is suspended in milk 
in an extremely finely divided amorphus condition. It is 
intimately associated with the insoluble calcium phosphate 
of milk and possibly held in chemical combination with 
this. Its study presents many difficulties, which leaves its 
exact composition still undetermined. 

Casein is easily precipitated by means of rennet extract 
and dilute acids, but the resulting precipitates are not 
identically the same. It is not coagulated by heat. 

Albumen. In composition albumen very closely re- 
sembles casein, differing from it chiefly in being rich in 
sulphur but lacking in phosporus. It is soluble and un- 
affected by rennet, which causes most of it to pass into the 
whey in the manufacture of cheese. It is coagulated at a 
temperature of 170° F. It is in their behavior toward heat 
and rennet that casein and albumen radically differ. 

Milk Sugar. This sugar, commonly called lactose, has 
the same chemical composition as cane sugar, differing 
from it chiefly in possessing only a faint sweetish taste. 
It readily changes into lactic acid when acted upon by 
the lactic acid bacteria. This causes the ordinary phenom- 
enon of milk souring. The maximum amount of acid in 
milk rarely exceeds .9%, the germs usually being checked 
or killed before this amount is formed. There is there- 
fore always a large portion of the sugar left in sour milk. 
All of the milk sugar is in solution. 

Ash. Most of the ash of milk exists in solution. It 
is composed of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric 
acid, chlorine, and iron, the soluble lime being the most 
important constituent. It is upon this that the action of 
rennet extract is dependent. For when milk is heated 
to high temperatures the soluble lime is rendered insoluble 
and rennet will no longer curdle milk. It seems also that 



130 DAIRY FARMING 

the viscosity of milk and cream is largely due to soluble 
lime salts. Cream heated to high temperatures loses its 
viscosity to such an extent that it can not be made to 
"whip." Treatment with soluble lime restores its orig- 
inal viscosity. The ash is the least variable constituent 
of milk. 

Colostrum Milk. This is the first milk drawn after 
parturition. It is characterized by its peculiar odor, yel- 
low color, broken down cells, and high content of albu- 
men which gives it its viscous, slimy appearance and 
causes it to coagulate on application of heat. 

According to Eugling the average composition of colos- 
trum milk is as follows : 

Water 71.69;^ 

Fat 3.2,7 

Casein 4-83 

Albumen 15.85 

Sugar 2.48 

Ash 1.78 

The secretion of colostrum milk is of very short dura- 
tion. Usually within four or five days after calving it 
assumes all the properties of normal milk. In some cases, 
however, it does not become normal till the sixth or even 
the tenth day, depending largely upon the condition of 
the animal. 

A good criterion in the detection of colostrum milk is 
its peculiar color, odor, and slimy appearance. The dis- 
appearance of these characteristics determines its fitness 
for butter production. 

Milk Secretion. Just how all of the different con- 
stituents of milk are secreted is not yet definitely 
understood. But it is known that the secretion takes 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 131 

place in the udder of the cow, and principally during the 
process of milking. Further, the entire process of milk 
elaboration seems to be under the control of the nervous 
system of the cow. This accounts for the changes in flow 
and richness of milk whenever cows are subjected to 
abnormal treatment. It is well known that a change of 
milkers, the use of rough language, or the abuse of cows 
with dogs and milk stools, seriously affects the production 
of milk and butter fat. It is therefore of the greatest 
practical importance to milk producers to treat cows 
as gently as possible, especially during the process of 
milking. 

How Secreted. The source from which the milk con- 
stituents are elaborated is the blood. It must not be sup- 
posed, however, that all the different constituents already 
exist in the blood in the form in which we find them in 
milk, for the blood is practically free from fat, casein, 
and milk sugar. These substances must then be formed in 
the cells of the udder from material supplied them by the 
blood. Thus there are in the udder cells that have the 
power of secreting fat in a manner similar to that by 
which the gastric juice is secreted in the stomach. Simi- 
larly, the formation of lactose is the result of the action 
of another set of cells whose function is to produce lac- 
tose. It is believed that the casein is formed from the 
albumen through the activity of certain other cells. The 
water, albumen, and soluble ash probably pass directly 
from the blood into the milk ducts by the process known 
as osmosis. 

Variations in the Quality of Milk. Milk from dif- 
ferent sources may vary considerably in composition, 
particularly in the percentage of butter fat. Even the 



133 DAIRY FARMING 

milk from the same cow may vary a great deal in compo- 
sition. The causes of these variations may be assigned 
to two sets of conditions : I. — Those natural to the cow. 
II. — Those of an artificial nature. 

I. QUAUTY OP MIIvK AS AFFECTED BY NATURAI, CONDI- 
TIONS. 

I. The composition of the milk of all cows undergoes 
a change with the advance of the period of lactation. 
During the first five months the composition remains prac- 
tically the same. After this, however, the milk becomes 
gradually richer until the cow "dries up." The following 
figures from Van Slyke illustrate this change: 

Month of Per cent of fat 

lactation. in milk. 



I- 4 

2 4 

3 4 

4 4 

5 4 

6 4 

7 4 

8 4 

9 4 

10 5 



It will be noticed from these figures that the milk 
actually decreases somewhat in richness during the first 
three months of the period. But just before the cow dries 
up, it may test as high as 8%. 

2. The quality of milk also differs with different 
breeds. Yet breed differences are less marked than those 
of the individual cows of any particular breed. 

Some breeds produce rich milk, others relatively poor 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



133 



milk. The following data obtained at the New Jersey 
Experiment Station illustrates these differences: 



Breed. 


Total 
Solids. 


Fat. 


Milk 
Sugar. 


Proteids. 


Ash. 


Ayshire 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Tersev 


Per cent. 
12.70 
14.48 
12.12 
14.34 


Per cent. 
3.68 
5.02 
3.51 

4.78 


Per cent. 
4.84 
4.80 
4.69 

4.85 


Per cent. 
3.48 
3.92 
3.28 
3.96 


Per cent. 
.69 
.75 
.64 
.75 







3. Extremes in the composition of milk are usually 
to be ascribed to the individuality or "make up" of the 
cow. It is inherent in some cows to produce rich milk, 
in others to produce poor milk. In other words, Nature 
has made every cow to produce milk of a given richness, 
which can not be perceptibly changed except by careful 
selection and breeding for a number of generations. 



II. QUAUTY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY ARTIFICIAL, CON- 
DITIONS. 

1. When cows are only partially milked they yield 
poorer milk than when milked clean. This is largely 
explained by the fact that the first drawn milk is always 
poorer in fat than that drawn last. Fore milk may test 
as low as .8%, while the strippings sometimes test as 
high as 14%. 

2. Fast milking increases both the quality and the 
quantity of the milk. It is for this reason that fast milkers 
are so much preferred to slow ones. 



134 DAIRY FARMING 

3. The richness of milk is also influenced by the length 
of time that elapses between the milkings. In general, 
the shorter the time between the milkings the richer the 
milk. This, no doubt, in a large measure accounts for 
the differences we often find in the richness of morning's 
and night's milk. Sometimes the morning's milk is the 
richer, at other times the evening's, depending largely 
upon the time of day the cows are milked. Milk can not, 
however, be permanently enriched by milking three times 
in stead of twice a day. 

4. Unusual excitement of any kind reduces the quality 
of milk. The person who abuses cows by dogs, milk 
stools, or boisterousness, pays dearly for it in a reduction 
of both the quality and the quantity of milk produced. 

5. Starvation also seriously affects both the quality 
and the quantity of milk. It has been repeatedly shown, in 
this country and in Europe, that under-feeding to any 
great extent results in the production of milk poor in fat. 

6. Sudden changes of feed may slightly affect the 
richness of milk, but only temporarily. 

So long as cows are fed a full ration, it is not possible 
to change the richness of milk permanently, no matter 
what the character of feed composing the ration, 

7. Irregularities of feeding and milking, exposure to 
heat, cold, rain, and flies, tend to reduce both the quantity 
and the quality of milk produced. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



THE BABCOCK TEST. 



This is a cheap and simple device for determining the 
percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, buttermilk, 
whey, and cheese. It was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M. 
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, and ranks among the leading agricultural inventions 
of modern times. The chief uses of the Babcock test may 
be mentioned as follows : 

1. It has made possible the payment for milk accord- 
ing to its quality. 

2. It has enabled butter and cheese makers to detect 
undue losses in the process of manvifacture. 

3. It has made possible the grading up of dairy herds 
by locating the poor cows. 

4. It has, in a large measure, done away with the prac- 
tice of watering and skimming milk. 

Principle of the Babcock Test. The separation of 
the butter fat from milk with the Babcock test is made 
possible : 

1. By the difference between the specific gravity of 
butter fat and milk serum. 

2. By the centrifugal force generated in the tester. 

3. By burning the solids not fat with a strong acid. 
Sample for a Test. Whatever the sample to be tested, 

always eighteen grams are used for a test. In testing 
cream and cheese, the sample is weighed. For testing 
milk, skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey, weighing requires 

135 



136 



DAIRY FARMING 



too much time. Indeed, with these substances weighing 
is not necessary as sufficiently accurate samples are ob- 




Fig. 29- Two styles of Babcock testers. 



tained by measuring which is the method universally em- 
ployed. In making a Babcock test it is of the greatest 
importance to secure a uniform sample of the substance 
to be tested. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 137 

Apparatus. This consists essentially of the following- 
parts : A, Babcock tester ; B, milk bottle ; C, cream bottle ; 
D, skim-milk bottle ; E, pipette or milk measure ; F, acid 
measures ; G, cream scales ; H, mixing cans ; I, dividers. 

A. Babcock Tester. This machine, shown in Fig. 29. 
consists of a revolving wheel placed in a horizontal posi- 
tion and provided with swinging pockets for the bottles. 
This wheel is rotated by means of a worm wheel (lower 
machine) at the top of the tester. When the tester stops 
the pockets hang down allowing the bottles to stand up. 
As the wheel begins rotating the pockets move out causing 
the bottles to assume a horizontal position. The wheel is 
enclosed in a cast iron frame provided with a cover. 

B. Milk Bottle. This has a neck graduated to ten 
large divisions, each of which reads one per cent. Each 
large division is subdivided into five smaller ones, 
making each subdivision read .2%. The contents of the 
neck from the zero mark to the 10% mark is equivalent to 
two cubic centimeters. Since the Babcock test does not 
give the percentage of fat by volume but by weight, the 
10% scale on the neck of the bottle will, therefore, hold 
1.8 grams of fat. In other words, if the scale were filled 
with water it would hold two grams ; but fat being only 
.9 as heavy, 2 cubic centimeters of it would weigh nine- 
tenths of two grams or 1.8 grams. This is exactly 10% 
of 18 grams, the weight of the sample used for testing. 
A milk bottle is shown in Fig. 30. 

C. Cream Bottles. These are graduated from 30% to 
55%. A 30% bottle is shown in Fig. 31. Since cream 
usually tests more than 30%, the sample must be divided 
wher. the 30% bottles are used. 



138 



DAIRY FARMING 



I 






Mfe^ 



--A 



Fig. 30. -Milk 
bottle. 



Fig. 31. -Cream 
bottle. 



Fig. 32.— Skim-milk 
bottle. 



D. Skim=milk Bottle. This bottle, shown in Fig. 32, 
is provided with a double neck, a large one to admit the 
milk, and a smaller graduated neck for fat reading. The 
entire scale reads one-half per cent. Being divided into 
ten subdivisions each subdivision reads .05%. The same 
bottle is also used for testing buttermilk. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



139 





Fig. 35.- 
Acid meas- 
ure. 



E. Pipette. This holds 17.6 c.c, as shown 
in Fig. 33. Since about .1 c.c. of milk will 
adhere to the inside of the pipette it is ex- 
pected to deliver only 17.5 c.c, which is equiva- 
lent to 18 grams of normal milk. 

F. Acid Measures. In making a Babcock 
Fig|3.-P'- test equal quantities, by volume, of acid and 

milk are used. The acid measure, shown in 
Fig. 34, holds 17.5 c.c. of acid, the amount needed for one 
test. The one shown in Fig. 35 is divided into six divisions, 
each of which holds 17.5 c.c. or one charge of acid. Where 



140 



DAIRY FARMING 



many tests are made a graduate of this kind saves time 
in filling, but should be made to hold twenty-five charges. 

H. A cream scales commonly used is illustrated in 
Fig. 36. 

Acid. The acid used in the test is commercial sul- 




Fig. 36. —Cream scales. 

phuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82 
to 1.83. When the specific gravity of the 
acid falls below 1.82 the milk solids are not 
properly burned and particles of curd may 
appear in the fat. On the other hand, an 
acid with a specific gravity above 1.83 has 
a tendency to blacken or char the fat. 

The sulphuric acid, besides burning the 
solids not fat, facilitates the separation of 
the fat by raising the specific gravity of the 
medium in which it floats. 

Sulphuric acid must be kept in glass bot- 
tles provided with glass stoppers. Exposure 
to the air materially weakens it. 

Making a Babcock Test. The different steps are 
indicated as follows : 

1. Thoroughly mix the sample. 

2. Immediately after mixing insert the pipette into 
the milk and suck until the milk has gone above the mark 
on the pipette, then quicklv place the fore finger over the 




Fig.37.-Sho-w. 
ing manner of 
emptying pi- 
pette. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



141 



top and allow the milk to run down to the mark by slowly 
relieving the pressure of the finger. 

3. Empty the milk into the bottle in the manner shown 
in Fig. Z7- 

4. Add the acid in the same manner in which the milk 
was emptied into the bottle. 

5. Mix the acid with the milk by giving the bottle a 
slow rotary motion. 

6. Allow mixture to stand a few minutes. 

7. Shake or mix again and then place the bottle in 
the tester. 

8. Run tester four minutes at the 
proper speed. 

9. Add moderately hot water until 
contents come to the neck of the 
bottle. 

10. Whirl one minute. 

11. Add moderately hot water un- 
til contents of the bottle reach about 
the 8% mark. 

12. Whirl one minute. 

13. Read test. 



How to Read the Test. At the top 

of the fat column is usually quite a 

pronounced meniscus as shown in Fig. 

38. A less pronounced one is found 

at the bottom of the column. The fat 

should be read from the extremes of 

the fat column, i to 3, not from 2 to 4, 

when its temperature is about 140° F. ^.^_ ^_^^, ^^,^^^ 

Too high a temperature gives too high showing meniscuses. 




142 DAIRY FARMING 

a reading, because of the expanded condition of the fat, 
while too low a temperature gives an uncertain reading. 
Precautions in Making a Test. i. Be sure you have 
a fair sample. 

2. The temperature of the milk should be about 60 
or 70 degrees. 

3. Always mix twice after acid has been added. 

4. Be sure your tester runs at the right speed. 

5. Use nothing but clean, soft water in filling the 
bottles. 

6. Be sure the tester does not jar. 

7. 'Be sure the acid is of the right strength. 

8. Mix as soon as acid is added to milk. 

9. Do not allow the bottles to become cold before 
reading the test. 

10. Read the test twice to insure a correct reading. 
The water added to the test bottles after they have been 

whirled should be clean and pure. Water containing 
much lime seriously affects the test. Such water may 
be used, however, when first treated with a few drops of 
sulphuric acid. 

As stated before, skim-milk, buttermilk, and cream are 
tested in the same way as milk, with the exception that 
the cream sample is weighed, not measured. 

Testing Cream. Accurate tests of cream cannot be 
secured by measuring the sample into the bottle as Is 
done in the case of milk. The reason for this is that 
the weight of cream varies with its richness. The richer 
the cream the less it weighs per unit volume. This is illus- 
trated in the following table by Farrington and Woll : 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 143 

Weight of fresh separator cream delivered by a 17.6 c. c. 

pipette. 



:rcent. of fat 


specific gravity 


Weight of cream 


in cream. 


(weighed). 


in grams. 


10 


1.023 


17.9 


IS 


I.0I2 


17.7 


20 


1.008 


17-3 


25 


1.002 


17.2 


30 


.996 


17.0 


35 


.980 


16.4 


40 


.966 


16.3 


45 


•950 


16.2 


50 


•947 


15-8 



With cream testing below 30% the full 18 grams may 
be added to one bottle and tested in the usual way. Where 
the cream tests above 30% better results are obtained by 
using only half the full sample of cream (9 grams) 
and adding to this grams of water. To this mixture 
the full amount of acid is added. Obviously in this case 
the test must be multiplied by 2 to get the correct reading. 

General Pointers. Black fat is caused by 

1. Too strong acid. 

2. Too much acid. 

3. Too high a temperature of the acid or the milk. 

4. Not mixing soon enough. 

5. Dropping the acid through the milk. 

Foam on top of fat is caused by hard water, and can 
be prevented by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to 
the water. 

Unclean or cloudy fat is caused by 

1. Insufficient mixing. 

2. Too low speed of tester. 

3. Too low temperature. 

4. Too weak acid. 

Curd particles in fat are caused by 
I. Too weak acid. 



144 DAIRY FARMING 

2. Not enough acid, 

3. Too low temperature. 

Cleaning Test Bottles. As soon as the test is read, 
the bottles are emptied by shaking them up and down so 
as to remove the white sediment. Next wash them in 
hot water containing some alkali, and finally rinse them 
with hot water. Occasionally the bottles should be rinsed 
with a special cleaning solution, which is made by dis- 
solving about one ounce of potassium bichromate in one 
pint of sulphuric acid. A small brush should also oc- 
casionally be run up and down the neck of the bottle. 

Making and Reading Cream Tests. The different 
steps in testing cream are essentially the same as in test- 
ing milk. However, as already stated, the cream must 
be weighed and tested in a special bottle. Furthermore, 
special precautions must be used in reading the test. 

It is well known that reading the extremes of the fat 
column gives too high a reading. This error is due to 
the meniscus at the top of the fat column, the size of 
which varies with the width of the neck. Farrington 
and Woll recommend reading from the lowest extremity 
of the fat column to the bottom of the upper meniscus. 
This is the method commonly employed in reading tests. 
Eckles and Wayman recommend removing the meniscus 
by adding a small quantity of amyl alcohol (colored red) 
to the top of the fat column. Farrington suggests add- 
ing a few drops of fat-saturated alcohol to the top of 
the fat as a means of removing the meniscus. Ordinary 
alcohol has a solvent action on butter fat, hence the 
necessity of using fat-saturated alcohol. 

Hunziker* after a thorough investigation of the sub- 

♦BuUetin 145, Indiana Experiment Station. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 145 

ject, has found "glymol" best suited for the removal of 
the meniscus. Glymol is known commercially as white 
mineral oil and is used for typewriters, sewing machines, 
etc. It will give satisfactory results without the addition 
of coloring matter. It may be colored, however, by plac- 
ing a small cheese cloth bag containing "alkanet root" 
in a bottle of glymol for a day or two. One ounce of 
alkanet root will color one quart of glymol. 

A few drops of the glymol are sufficient, and should 
be carefully added to the top of the fat column before 
reading the test. 

To get accurate readings the bottles should be read 
while the temperature of the fat is between 135° and 140° 
F. The bottles should be taken from the tester and placed 
in a water bath having a temperature of 140° F. and 
kept there several minutes, or long enough to cool the 
fat to 140° F. The water in the vessel should extend 
to the extreme top of the fat in the bottles, or preferably 
a little above. Accurate readings cannot be obtained by 
reading the bottles directly from the tester ; the first 
bottles removed have too high a temperature while those 
removed last have too low a temperature. Where hand 
testers are used, the bottles are usually too cold for sat- 
isfactory reading and, therefore, must be heated to the 
proper temperature. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS. 

A thorough knowledge of bacteria and their action 
forms the basis of success in butter making. Indeed the 
man who is lacking such knowledge is making butter 
in the dark; his is chance work. Much attention will 
therefore be given to the study of these organisms in 
this work. 

I. BACTERIA. 

The term bacteria is applied to the smallest of living 
plants, which can be seen only under the highest powers 
of the miscroscope. Each bacterium is made up of a 
single cell. These plants are so small that it would 
require 30,000 of them laid side by side to measure an 
inch. Their presence is almost universal, being found 
in the air, water, and soil; in cold, hot, and temperate 
climates; and in living and dead as well as inorganic 
matter. 

Bacteria grow with marvelous rapidity. A single bac- 
terium is capable of reproducing itself a million times 
in twenty- four hours. They reproduce either by a simple 
division of the mother cell, thus producing two new cells, 
or by spore formation in which case the contents of the 
mother cell are formed into a round mass called a spore. 
These spores have the power of withstanding unfavorable 
conditions to a remarkable extent, some being able to 
endure a temperature of 212° F. for several hours. 

Most bacteria require for best growth a moist, warm, 
and nutritious medium such as is furnished by milk, in 

146 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 147 

which an exceedingly varied and active life is possible. 
In nature and in many of the arts and industries, 
bacteria are of the greatest utility, if not indispensable. 
They play a most important part in the disintegration of 
vegetable and animal matter, resolving compounds into 
their elemental constituents in which form they can again 
be built up and used as plant food. In the art of butter 
and cheese making bacteria are indispensable. The tO' 
bacco, tanning, and a host of other industries cannot 
flourish without them. 

II. MILK FERMENTATIONS. 

Definition. In defining fermentation processes, Conn 
says that, "In general, they are progressive chemical 
changes taking place under the influence of certain 
organic substances which are present in very small 
quantity in the fermenting mass." 

With few exceptions, milk fermentations are the result 
of the growth and multiplication of- various classes of 
bacteria. The souring of milk illustrates a typical fer- 
mentation, which is caused by the action of lactic acid 
bacteria upon the milk sugar breaking it up into lactic 
acid. Here the chemical change is conversion of sugar 
into lactic acid. 

The most common fermentations of milk are the fol- 
lowing: 

r Lactic. 

1 Normal ^ Curdling and Digesting. 

[ Butyric. 



Milk Fermentations 



Bitter. 

Slimy or Ropy. 
Abnormal. . . -j Gassy. 
I Toxic. 
I Chromogenic. 



148 DAIRY FARMING 

NORMAIv FERMENTATIONS. 

We speak of normal fermentations because milk always 
contains certain classes of bacteria even when drawn and 
kept under cleanly conditions. These fermentations will 
be discussed in the following pages. 

I. LACTIC FERMENTATION, 

This is the most common and by far the most important 
fermentation of milk. Indeed it is indispensable in the 
manufacture of butter of the highest quality. The germ 
causing this fermentation is called Lactici Acidi. It is 
non-spore bearing and has its optimum growth tempera- 
ture between 90° and 98° F. At 40° its growth ceases. 
Exposed to a temperature of 140° for fifteen minutes 
it is killed. 

The souring of milk and cream, as already mentioned, 
is due to the action of the lactic acid bacteria upon the 
milk sugar changing it into lactic acid. Acid is therefore 
always produced at the expense of milk sugar. But the 
sugar is never all converted into acid because the pro- 
duction of acid is limited. When the acidity reaches 
about .9% the lactic acid bacteria are either checked or 
killed and the production of acid ceases. Owing to the 
universal presence of these bacteria it is almost impossible 
to secure milk free from them. 

Under cleanly conditions the lactic acid type of bacteria 
always predominates in milk. When, however, milk is 
drawn under uncleanly conditions the lactic organisms 
may be outnumbered by other species of bacteria which 
give rise to the numerous taints often met with in milk. 

Contradictory as it may seem, the lactic acid bacteria 
are alike friend and foe to the butter maker. Creamery 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 149 

patrons are expected to have milk as free as possible 
from these germs so that it may arrive at the creamery 
in a sweet condition. They are therefore expected to 
thoroughly cool and care for it, not alone to suppress 
the action of the lactic acid bacteria but also that of the 
abnormal species that might have gained access to the 
milk. 

While the acid bacteria are objectionable in milk, in 
cream made into butter they are indispensable. The 
highly desirable aroma in butter is the result of the 
growth of these organisms in the process of cream 
ripening. There are a number of different species of 
bacteria that have the power of producing lactic acid. 

2. CURDLING AND DIGESTING FERMENTATION. 

In point of numbers this class of bacteria ranks perhaps 
next to the lactic acid type. Indeed it is very difficult to 
obtain milk that does not contain them. It is not often, 
however, that their presence is noticeable owing to their 
inability to thrive in an acid medium. 

According to bacteriologists most of these bacteria 
secrete two enzymes, one of which has the power of 
curdling milk, the other of digesting it. The former 
has the power of rennet, the latter of trypsin. "As a 
fule," says Russell, "any organism that possesses the 
digestive power, first causes a coagulation of the casein 
in a manner comparable to rennet." 

It is only occasionally when the lactic acid organisms 
are in a great minority, or when for some reason their 
action has been suppressed, that this class of bacteria 
manfests itself by curdling milk while sweet. The curd 
thus formed differs from that produced by lactic acid in 
being soft and slimy. 



ISO DAIRY FARMING 

Most of the curdling and digesting bacteria are spore 
bearing and can thus withstand unfavorable conditions 
better than the lactic acid bacteria. For this reason milk 
that has been heated sufficiently to kill the lactic acid 
bacteria, will often undergo the undesirable changes 
attributable to the digesting and curdling organisms. 

3. BUTYRIC I^IJRMENTATIGN. 

It was mentioned that many bacteria have the power 
of producing lactic acid but that the true lactic acid fer- 
mentation is probably caused by a single species. So it 
is with the butyric acid bacteria. While a number of 
different organisms are known to produce this acid, Conn 
is of the opinion that the common butyric fermentation 
of milk and cream is due to a single species belonging 
to the anaerobic type. 

The butyric acid produced by these organisms is the 
chief cause of rancid flavors in cream and butter. These 
bacteria are widely distributed in nature, being particu- 
larly abundant in filth. They are almost universally 
present in milk, from which they are hard to eradicate 
on account of their resistant spores. It is on account 
of these spores and their ability to grow in the absence 
of oxygen that the butyric fermentation is often found 
in ordinary sterilized milk from which the air has been 
excluded. 

The influence of the butyric acid bacteria is felt mainly 
in butter and in overripened cream. The latter frequently 
possesses a rancid odor which must be charged to these 
bacteria, especially since it is known that overripened 
cream possesses conditions favorable for their develop- 
ment. Overripening should, therefore, be carefully 
guarded against. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 151 

The butyric fermentation is rarely noticeable during 
the early stage of cream ripening and its subsequent 
development in a highly acid cream is explained by 
Russell as being "probably due, not so much to the pres- 
ence of lactic acid, as to the absence of dissolved oxygen, 
which at this stage has been used up by the lactic acid 
organisms." 

Butter that is apparently good in quality when freshly 
made, will usually turn rancid when kept at ordinary 
temperatures a short time. The quickness with which 
this change comes is dependent largely upon the amount 
of acid present in cream at the time of churning. Butter 
made from cream in which the maximum amount of acid 
consistent with good flavor has been developed, usually 
possesses poor keeping quality. This seems to indi- 
cate that at least part of the rancidity that develops in 
butter after it is made is due to the butyric acid bacteria, 
while light and air, doubtless, also contribute much to 
this end. 

ABNORMAI, FERMENTATIONS. 

No trouble needs to be anticipated from these fermenta- 
tions so long as cleanliness prevails in the dairy. The 
bacteria that belong to this class are usually associated 
with filth, and dairies that become infested with them 
show a lack of cleanliness in the care and handling of the 
milk. Since milk is frequently infected with one or 
another of these abnormal fermentations a brief discus- 
sion will be given of the most important. 

I. BITTER FERMENTATION. 

Bitter milk and cream are quite common and there are 
several ways in which this bitterness is imparted : it may 



152 DAIRY FARMING 

be clue to strippers' milk and to certain classes of feeds 
and weeds, but most frequently to bacteria. This class 
of bacteria has not yet been studied very thoroughly but 
we know a great deal about it in a practical way. In 
milk and cream in which the action of the lactic acid 
germs has been suppressed by low temperatures, bitter- 
ness due to the development of the bitter fermentation is 
almost certain to be noticeable. When the temperature 
is such as to cause a rapid development of the lactic 
fermentation, the bitter fermentation is rarely, if ever, 
present. It is quite evident from this that the bitter 
organisms are capable of growing at much lower tem- 
peratures than the lactic and that so long as the latter 
are rapidly growing the bitter fermentation is held in 
check. 

This teaches us that it is not safe to ripen cream below 
60° F. The author has found that cream quickly ripened 
and then held at a temperature of 45° for twenty-four 
hours would show no tendency toward bitterness, while 
the same cream held sweet at 45° for twenty-four hours 
and then ripened would develop a bitter flavor. This 
indicates that the lactic acid is unfavorable to the develop- 
ment of the bitter fermentation. 

The bitter germs produce spores capable of resisting 
the boiling temperature. This accounts for the bitter 
taste that often develops in boiled milk. 

2. SUMY OR ROPY FERMENTATION. 

This Is not a common fermentation and rarely 
causes trouble where cleanliness is practiced in the dairy. 
The bacteria that produce it are usually found in impure 
water, dust, and dung. These germs are antagonistic to 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 153 

the lactic organisms and for this reason milk infected 
with them sours with great difficulty. 

The action of this class of bacteria is to increase the 
viscosity of milk, which in mild cases simply assumes a 
slimy appearance. In extreme cases, however, the milk 
develops into a ropy consistency, permitting it to be 
strung out in threads several feet long. 

Slimy or ropy milk cannot be creamed and is therefore 
worthless in the manufacture of butter. Such milk should 
not be confused with gargety milk which is stringy when 
drawn from the cow. The bacteria belonging to this class 
are easily destroyed as they do not form spores. 

3. GASSY FERMENTATION. 

This is an exceedingly troublesome fermentation in 
cheese making and is also the cause of much poor flavored 
butter. The gas germs are very abundant during the 
warm summer months but are scarcely noticeable in 
winter. Like the bitter germs, they are antagonistic to 
the lactic acid bacteria and do not grow during the rapid 
development of the latter. They are found most abun- 
dantly in the barn, particularly in dung. 

4. TOXIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Toxic or poisonous products are occasionally developed 
in milk as a result of bacterial activity. They are most 
commonly found in milk that has been kept for some 
time at low temperature. 

5. CHROMOGENIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Bacteria belonging to this class have the power of 
imparting to milk various colors. The most common of 



154 DAIRY FARMING 

these is blue. It is, however, not often met with in dairy 
practice since the color usually does not appear until the 
milk is several days old. The specific organism that 
causes blue milk has been known for more than half a 
century and is called cyanogenous. Another color that 
rarely turns up in dairy practice is produced by a germ 
known as prodigiosis, causing milk to turn red. Other 
colors are produced such as yellow, green, and black, but 
these are of very rare occurrence. 




Microscopic appearance of pure and impure milk. A, Pure milk ; B, after 
standing in a wash room for a few hours in a dirty dish, showing, besides 
the fat globules, many forms of bacteria.— Moore. 




CHAPTER XX. 

SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION. 

Sanitary Milk Defined. Sanitary milk is milk from 
healthy cows, produced and handled under conditions in 
which contamination from filth, bad odors, and bacteria, 
is reduced to a minimum. 

Importance of Sanitary Milk. The production of 
clean milk is one of the most important subjects that con- 
fronts the American dairyman at the present time. Fur- 
ther improvement in the quality of butter and cheese must 
largely be sought in the use of cleaner milk. With the 
better appreciation by the public of the great nutritive 
value of milk, there opens an unlimited market for it for 
consumption in the raw form. Already we find that milk 
produced under the best sanitary conditions sells for prac- 
tically double that obtained under ordinary, more or less, 
slip-shod conditions. So great is the clamor for cleaner 
milk that any extra efiforts expended in producing it are 
certain to be richly compensated. 

The Necessary Conditions for the production of sani- 
tary milk are as follows: (i) Healthy cows; (2) sani- 
tary barn; (3) clean barn yard; (4) clean cows; (5) 
clean milkers; (6) clean milk vessels; (7) clean, whole- 
some feed; (8) pure water; (9) clean strainers; (10) 
dust-free stable air; (11) clean bedding; (12) milking 
with dry hands; (13) thorough cooling of milk after 
milking; (14) sanitary milk room. 

Healthy Cows. The health of the cow is of prime im- 
portance in the production of sanitary milk. All milk 

155 



156 DAIRY FARMING 

from cows affected with contagious diseases should be 
rigidly excluded from the dairy. Aside from the general 
unfitness of such milk there is danger of the disease pro- 
ducing organisms getting into the milk. It has been 
found, for example, that cows whose udders are affected 
with tuberculosis, yield milk containing these organisms. 
The prevalence of this disease among cows at present 
makes it imperative to determine definitely whether or 
not cows are affected with the disease, by the application 
of the tuberculin test. 

Any feverish condition of the cow tends to impart a 
feverish odor to the milk, which should therefore not be 
used. Especially important is it that milk from diseased 
udders, no matter what the character of the disease, be 
discarded. 

Sanitary Barn. Light, ventilation, and ease of clean- 
ing are essential to a sanitary dairy barn. The disinfect- 
ant action of an abundance of sunlight, secured by pro- 
viding a large number of windows, is of the highest im- 
portance. 

Of equal importance is a clean, pure atmosphere, secur- 
ed by a continuous ventilating system. The fact that 
odors of any description are absorbed by milk with great 
avidity, sufficiently emphasises the great need of pure air. 

To permit of easy cleaning, the barn floors and gutters 
should be built of concrete. They should be scrubbed 
daily, and care should be taken to keep the walls and 
ceiling free from dust and cobwebs. The feed boxes must 
also be cleaned after each feed. 

The stalls should be of the simplest construction, to 
afford as little chance for lodgement of dust as possible. 
Furthermore, they should so fit the cows as to cause the 
latter to stand with their hind feet on the edge of the gut- 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 157 

ter, a matter of the highest importance in keeping cows 
clean. 

The walls and ceiling should be as smooth as possible. 
Moreover, they should be frequently disinfected by means 
of a coat of whitewash. The latter gives the barn a 
striking sanitary appearance. 

Clean Barn Yard. A clean, well drained barn yard is 
an essential factor in the production of sanitary milk. 
Where cows are obliged to wade in mire and filth, it is 
easy to foretell what the quality of the milk will be. To 
secure a good barn yard it must be covered with gravel 
or cinders, and should slope away from the barn. If the 
manure is not taken directly from the stable to the fields, 
it should be placed where the cows cannot have access 
to it. 

Clean Cows. Where the barn and barn-yard are sani- 
tary, cows may be expected to be reasonably clean. Yet 
cows that are apparently clean, may still be the means of 
infecting milk to no small degree. When we consider 
that every dust particle and every hair that drops into 
the milk may add hundreds, thousands, or even millions 
of bacteria to it, we realize the importance of taking every 
precaution to guard against contamination from this 
source. 

To keep cows as free as possible from loose hair and 
dust particles they should be carded and brushed regu- 
larly once a day. This should be done after milking to 
avoid dust. Five to ten minutes before the cow is milked 
her udder and flanks should be gently washed with clean, 
tepid water, by using a clean sponge or cloth. This will 
allow sufficient time for any adhering drops of water to 
drip off, at the same time it will keep the udder and flanks 
sufficiently moist to prevent dislodgment of dust particles 



158 DAIRY FARMING 

and hairs at milking time. This practically means that 
the milker must always have one or two cows washed 
ahead. He should be careful to wash his hands in clean 
water after each washing. 

Under ordinary conditions the cow is the greatest 
source of milk contamination. The rubbing of the milker 
against her and the shaking of the udder will dislodge 
numerous dust particles and hairs unless the foregoing 
instructions are rigidly followed. 

Attention should also be given to the cow's switch, 
which should be kept scrupulously clean. The usual 
switching during milking is no small matter in the con- 
tamination of milk when the switch is not clean. 

Clean Milkers. Clothes which have been worn in the 
fields are not suitable for milking purposes. Every milker 
should be provided with a clean, white milking suit, con- 
sisting of cap, jacket and trousers. Such clothes can be 
bought ready made for one dollar; and, if frequently 
laundered, will materially aid in securing clean milk. 




Fig. 42. Unflushed seam. Fig. 43. Flushed seam. 

Milkers should also wash and dry their hands before 
milking, and, above all, should keep them dry during 
milking. 

Clean Vessels. All utensils used in the handling of 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 159 

milk should be made of good tin, with as few seams as 
possible. Wherever seams occur, they should be flushed 
with solder. Unflushed seams are difficult to clean, and, 
as a rule, afford good breeding places for bacteria. Fig. 
42 illustrates the character of the unflushed seam ; Fig. 43 
shows a flushed seam, which fully illustrates its value. 

Fig. 44 illustrates a modern sanitary milk pail. The 
value of a partially closed pail is evident from the re- 
duced opening, which serves to keep out many of the 
micro-organisms that otherwise drop into the pail during 




Fig. 44. Sanitary Milk Pail. 

milking. While such a pail is somewhat more difficult 
to clean than the ordinary open pail, it is believed that 
the reduced contamination during milking far outweighs 
this disadvantage. 

All utensils used in the handling of milk should be as 
nearly sterile as possible. A very desirable method of 
cleaning them is as follows : 

First, rinse with warm or cold water. Second, scrub 



160 DAIRY FARMING 

with moderately hot water containing some sal soda. 
The washing should be done with brushes rather than 
cloth because the bristles enter into any crevices present 
which the cloth cannot possibly reach. Furthermore, it 
is very difficult to keep the cloth clean. Third, scald 
thoroughly with steam or hot water, after rinsing out the 
water in which the sal soda was used. After scalding, 
the utensils should be inverted on the shelves without 
wiping and allowed to remain in this place until ready 
to use. This will leave the vessels in a practically sterile 
condition. Fourth, if it is possible to turn the inside of 
the vessels to the sun, in a place where there is no dust, 
then it is desirable to expose the utensils during the day 
to the strong germicidal action of the direct sun's rays. 

Clean, Wholesome Feed. Highly fermented and 
aromated feeds, like sour brewers grains and leeks should 
be rigidly withheld from dairy cows when anything like 
good flavored milk is sought. So readily does milk 
absorb the odors of feeds through the system of the ani- 
mal, that even good corn silage, when fed just previous 
to milking, will leave its odor in the milk. When fed 
after milking, however, no objection whatever can be 
raised against corn silage because not a trace of its odors 
is then found in the milk. Aromatic feeds of any kind 
should always be fed after milking. 

Pure Water. Since feeds are known to transmit their 
odors to the milk through the cow, it is reasonable to ex- 
pect water to do the same. Cows should, therefore, never 
be permitted to drink anything but pure, clean-flavored 
water. The need of pure water is further evident from 
the fact that it enters so largely into the composition of 
milk. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 161 

The water of ponds and stagnant streams is especially 
dangerous. Not only is such water injurious to the health 
of cows, but in wading into it, they become contaminated 
with numerous undesirable bacteria, some of which may 
later find their way into the milk. 

Strainers and Straining. Milk should be drawn so 
clean as to make it almost unnecessary to strain it. This 
operation is frequently done under the delusion that so 
long as it removes all visible dirt the milk has been 
entirely purified. The real harm, however, that comes 
from hairs and dust particles dropping into the milk is 
not so much in the hairs and dust particles themselves 
as in the millions of bacteria which they carry with them. 
These bacteria are so small that no method of straining 
will remove them. Straining can not even remove all 
of the dirt, because some of it will go in solution. 

A good strainer consists of two thicknesses of cheese 
cloth with a layer of absorbent cotton between. The 
strainer is to be placed on the can or vat into which the 
milk is to be strained and not on the milk pail. While 
a strainer like the above placed upon the milk pail, reduces 
the bacterial content slightly in the hands of careful milk- 
ers, it is believed that the slight advantage gained would 
be more than ofif-set by greater carelessness in milking; 
especially might this be true with ignorant milkers who 
are apt to think that the strainer will make up for any 
carelessness on their part. A cheese cloth strainer on 
the milk pail is worse than useless with any kind of 
milker. 

New sterilized cotton must be used at each milking 
and the cloths must be thoroughly washed and sterilized. 
Like the cotton, it is best to use the cloth but once. 

Dust=Free Air. Great precaution should be taken not 



162 DAIRY FARMING 

to create any dust in the stable about milking time, for 
this is certain to find its way into the milk. Cows should, 
therefore, never be bedded or receive any dusty feed just 
before or during milking. 

Dry roughage, such as hay and corn fodder, always 
contains a considerable amount of dust, and when fed 
before or during milking may so charge the air with dust 
as to make clean milk an impossibility. 

Moistening the floor and walls with clean water pre- 
vious to milking materially minimizes the danger of get- 
ting dust into the milk. A mistake not infrequently made 
even in the better class of dairies is to card and brush the 
cows just before milking. While this results in cleaner 
cows, the advantage thus gained is far more than off- 
set by the dirtier air, which, as will be shown later, 
materially increases the germ content of the milk. The 
carding and brushing should be done at least thirty min- 
utes before the milking commences. 

Clean Bedding. Clean shavings and clean cut straw 
should preferably be used for bedding. Cows stepping 
and lying on dirty bedding will soil themselves and create 
a dusty barn air. 

Milking With Dry Hands. A prolific source of 
milk contamination is the milking with wet hands. Where 
the milker wets his hands with milk, some of it is bound 
to drip into the pail, carrying with it thousands or mil- 
lions of bacteria, depending upon the degree of cleanliness 
of the milker's hands and the cow's udder. There is no 
excuse for the filthy practice of wet milking, since it 
is just as easy to milk with dry hands. 

Fore=Milk. Where the purest milk is sought, it is de- 
sirable to reject the first stream or two from each teat, 
as this contains many thousands of bacteria. The reason 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 163 

for this rich development of germs is found in the favor- 
able conditions provided by the milk in the milk-ducts of 
the teats, to which the bacteria find ready access. 

Flies. Flies not only constitute a prolific but also a 
dangerous source of milk contamination. These pests 
visit places of the worst description and their presence 
in a dairy suggests a disregard for cleanliness. Of 414 
flies examined by the Bacteriologist of the Connecticut 
Station, the average number of bacteria carried per fly 
was one and a quarter millions. Flies should be rigidly 
excluded from all places where they are apt to come in 
contact with the milk. 

Experimental Data. To show to what extent the 
bacterial content of milk may be reduced by adopting 
the precautions suggested in the foregoing pages, a few 
experimental data are herewith presented. 

In Bulletin No. 42 of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment 
Station, Stocking reports the following : 

1. When the cows were milked before feeding the 
number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,233; when milked im- 
mediately after feeding, the number of bacteria was 3,656, 
or three times as many. 

2. When the udder and flanks of the cows were wiped 
with a damp cloth, the number of bacteria per c. c. was 
716; when not wiped the number was 7,058, or ten times 
as great. 

3. When the cows were not brushed just before milk- 
ing the number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,207; when 
brushed just before milking, the number was 2,286, or 
nearly twice as great. 

4. When students who had studied the production of 
clean milk did the milking, the number of bacteria per 
c. c. was 914; when the milking was done by regular 



164 



DAIRY FARMING 



unskilled milkers the number of bacteria was 2,846, or 
three times as great. 

Wiping or washing udders before milking not only 
very materially reduces the bacterial content of the milk, 
but also lessens the amount of dirt to a very great extent. 
Frazer has shown that "the average weight of dirt which 
falls from muddy udders during milking is ninety times 
as great as that which falls from the same udder after 
washing, and when the udder is slightly soiled it is 
eighteen times as great." 




Fig. 45 -Clean Milking. (From Da. Div., U. S. Dept. of A.) 



CHAPTER XXL 
FARM BUTTER-MAKING. 

CREAMING. 

Cause. Creaming is due to the difference in the speci- 
fic gravity of the fat and the milk serum. The fat being 
hght and insoluble rises, carrying with it some of the 
other constituents of the milk. The result is a layer of 
cream at the surface. 

Processes of Creaming. The processes by which milk 
is creamed may be divided into two general classes : ( i ) 
That in which milk is placed in shallow pans or long 
narrow cans and allowed to set for about twenty-four 
hours, a process known as natural or gravity creaming; 
(2) that in which gravity is aided by subjecting the milk 
to centrifugal force, a process known as centrifugal 
creaming. The centrifugal force has the effect of increas- 
ing the force of gravity many thousands of times, thus 
causing an almost instantaneous creaming. This force 
is generated in the cream separator. 

Shallow=P'an Method. The best results with this 
method are secured by straining the milk directly after 
milking into tin pans about twelve inches in diameter 
and two to four inches deep. It is then allowed to remain 
undisturbed at room temperature (60° to 65° F.) for 
twenty-four to thirty-six hours, after which the cream is 
removed either with a nearly flat, perforated skimmer, or 
by allowing it to glide over the edge of the pan after it 
has been carefully loosened along the sides. The aver- 
age loss of fat in the skim milk by this method is 0.7%. 

165 



166 



DAIRY FARMING 




Deep=CoId=Setting Method. The best results with 
this method are secured by using a can Hke the Cooley 
illustrated in Fig. 47. This can is provided with a cover 
which allows it to be submerged in 
water. It also has a spout at the 
bottom by which the skim milk is 
gently removed, thus preventing the 
partial mixing of cream and skim 
milk incident to skimming with a 
conical dipper. 

The milk is put into the cans di- 
rectly after milking and cooled to 
as low a temperature as possible. 
To secure the best results with this 
method the water should be iced. 
Where this is done the skim milk 
will show only about 0.2% fat. It 
it desirable to allow the milk to set 
twenty-four hours before skimming, though usually the 
creaming is quite complete at the end of twelve or fifteen 
hours. 

Dilution or Aquatic Separators. One of the most 
unsatisfactory methods of creaming is the addition of 
water to the milk. The creaming by this method is done 
in variously constructed tin cans, which the manufacturers 
usually sell under the name of dilution or aquatic sepa- 
rators. Those uninformed about the genuine centrifugal 
separators are often lead to believe that they are buying 
real separators at a low cost when they are investing five, 
ten or fifteen dollars in one of these tin cans, which are 
no more entitled to the term separator than are the com- 
mon shallow pans. The average loss of fat with this 
system of creaming is about i}4%. • 



Fig. 47. Cooley Can. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 167 

Centrifugal Method (Hand Separator). Dairies hav- 
ing four or more cows should cream their milk by the cen- 
trifugal method, the hand separator. The saving of but- 
ter fat with this method soon pays for the cost of a sep- 
arator. Moreover it has the additional advantages over 
the gravity methods of creaming in providing fresh, sweet 
skim milk for feeding purposes, and yielding cream of 
any desired richness. 

Efficiency of Creaming With a Separator. Under 
favorable conditions a separator should not leave more 
than .05% fat in the skim milk by the Babcock test 
There are a number of conditions that affect the efficiency 
of skimming and these must be duly considered in making 
a separator test. The following are some of these con- 
ditions : 

A. Speed of bowl. 

B. Steadiness of motion. 

C. Temperature of milk. 

D. Manner of heating milk. 

E. Amount of milk skimmed per hour. 

F. Acidity of milk. 

G. Viscosity of milk. 
H. Richness of cream. 

I. Stage of lactation. (Stripper's milk.) 

A. The greater the speed the more efficient the cream- 
ing, other conditions the same. It is important to see that 
the separator runs at full speed during the separating 
process. 

B. A separator should run as smoothly as a top. The 
slightest trembling will increase the loss of fat in the 
skim milk. Trembling of bowl may be caused by any of 
the following conditions: (i) loose bearings, (2) sepa- 



168 DAIRY FARMING 

rator out of plumb, (3) dirty oil or dirty bearings, (4) 
unstable foundation, or (5) unbalanced bowl. 

C. The best skimming is not possible with any sepa- 
rator when the temperature falls below 60° F. A tem- 
perature of 85° to 98° F. is the most satisfactory for 
ordinary skimming. Under some conditions the cleanest 
skimming is obtained at temperatures above 100° F. The 
reason milk separates better at the higher temperatures is 
that the viscosity is reduced. 

D. Sudden heating tends to increase the loss of fat 
in skim-milk. The reason for this is that the fat heats 
more slowly than the milk serum, which diminishes the 
difference between their densities. When, for example, 
milk is suddenly heated from near the freezing tempera- 
ture to 85° F. by applying live steam, the loss of fat in 
the skim-milk may be four times as great as it is under 
favorable conditions. 

E. Unduly crowding a separator increases the loss 
of fat in the skim-milk. On the other hand, a marked 
underfeeding is apt to lead to the same result. 

F. The higher the acidity of milk the poorer the 
creaming. With sour milk the loss of fat in the skim- 
milk becomes very great. 

G. Sometimes large numbers of undesirable (slimy) 
bacteria find entrance into milk and materially increase 
its viscosity. This results in very unsatisfactory creaming. 
Low temperatures also increase the viscosity of milk 
which accounts for the poor skimming at these tempera- 
tures. 

H. Most of the standard makes of separators will do 
satisfactory work when delivering cream of a richness of 
50%. A richer cream is liable to result in a richer skim- 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 169 

milk. The reason for this is that in rich cream the skim- 
milk is taken close to the cream line where the skim-milk 
is richest. 

I. Owing to the very small size of the fat globules in 
stripper's milk, such milk is more difficult to cream than 
that produced in the early period of lactation. 

Regulating Richness of Cream. The richness of 
cream is regulated by means of a cream screw in the sepa- 
rator bowl. When a rich cream is desired the screw is 
turned toward the center of the bowl, and for a thin cream 
it is turned away from the center. 

Advantages of Rich Cream. To separate a rich 
cream at the farm results in mutual benefit to pro- 
ducer and manufacturer. The main advantages are as fol- 
lows: (i) Less bulk to handle; (2) less cream to cool; 
(3) less transportation charges; (4) more skim-milk for 
the farmer; (5) better keeping quality; (6) allows more 
starter to be added; (7) gives better results in churn- 
ing, and (8) makes pasteurization easier, especially with 
sour cream. 

Best Time to Separate Milk. The best results with 
a separator are obtained by running the milk through 
the machine immediately after milking. 

Saving of Butter Fat with a Separator. That the 
owner of four good cows can afford to invest $50.00 in a 
small cream separator is shown by the following: Four 
good cows will yield not less than 24,000 pounds of 
milk a year. By the common shallow pan method of 
creaming, the loss of butter fat will average 0.7 pound 
for every 100 pounds of milk. With the centrifugal sepa- 
rator the loss of fat will not average over 0.05 pound, 
hence there will be effected a saving of 0.65 pound of 



170 DAIRY FARMING 

butter fat in each lOO pounds of milk by the use of the 
separator. At this rate, the total saving of butter fat an- 
nually on the 24,000 pounds of milk will be 156 pounds. 
Since each pound of butter fat will yield approximate!} 
I 1-6 pounds of butter, 183 pounds of butter will be saved 
by the process, which, at 25 cents per pound, amounts to 
$45.75. This saving in butter fat alone will almost pay 
for the separator in one year. 

Fastening a Separator. To secure steady motion, 
the separator must be fastened to a solid foundation. 
There is nothing better in this respect than a concrete 
floor, with which every dairy should be provided. 

One of the best methods of fastening separators to con- 
crete floors is the use of expansion bolts. 

These consist of lag screws with tapering points pro- 
vided with malleable shields, having threads on their in- 
ner sides to fit the threads of the lag screws and pro- 
jections on their outer sides to catch and hold in holes 
made in the concrete. The shields expand as the lag 
screw is screwed in. 

CREAM RIPENING. 

Cream ripening is a process of fermentation in which 
the lactic acid organisms play the chief role. In every-day 
language, cream ripening means the souring of the cream. 
So important is this process that the success or failure of 
the butter maker is largely determined by his ability 
to exercise the proper control over it. In common practice 
the time consumed in the ripening of cream varies from 
twelve to twenty-four hours. 

Object. The ripening of cream has for its prime ob- 
ject the development of flavor and aroma in butter, two 
qualities usually expressed by the word flavor. In addi- 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 171 

tion to this, cream ripening has several minor purposes, 
namely: (i) renders cream more easily churnable ; (2) 
obviates difificulties from frothing or foaming in churn- 
ing; (3) permits a higher churning temperature; (4) 
increases the keeping quality of butter. 

Flavor. This, so far as known at the present time, 
is the result of the development of the lactic fermentation. 
If other fermentations aid in the production of this im- 
portant quality of butter, they must be looked upon as 
secondary. In practice the degree or intensity of flavor 
is easily controlled by governing the formation of lactic 
acid. That is, the flavor develops gradually with the in- 
crease in the acidity of the cream. Sweet cream butter, 
for example, is almost entirely devoid of flavor, while 
cream with an average richness possesses the maximum 
amount of good flavor possible when the acidity has 
reached .6%. 

Churnability. Practical experience shows that sour 
cream is more easily churnable than sweet cream. This 
is explained by the fact that the development of acid in 
cream tends to diminish its viscosity. The concussion pro- 
duced in churning causes the little microscopic fat glob- 
ules to flow together and coalesce, ultimately forming the 
small granules of butter visible in the churn. A high 
viscosity impedes the movement of these globules. It is 
evident, therefore, that anything that reduces the viscosity 
of cream, will facilitate the churning. 

As a rule, too, the greater the churnability of cream the 
smaller the loss of fat in the buttermilk. 

Frothing. Experience shows that ripened cream is 
less subject to frothing or foaming than unripened. This 
is probably due to the reduced viscosity of ripened cream 
and the consequent greater churnability of same. 



172 DAIRY FARMING 

Temperature. Sour cream can be churned at higher 
temperatures than sweet cream with less loss of fat in 
the buttermilk. This is of great practical importance 
since it is difficult to get low enough temperatures for the 
successful churning of sweet cream. 

Keeping Quality. It has been found that butter with 
the best keeping quality is obtained from well ripened 
cream. It is true, however, that butter made from cream 
that has been ripened a little too far will possess very 
poor keeping quality. An acidity of .5% should be placed 
as the limit when good keeping quality is desired. 

CONTROIv 05* the; RIPENING PROCESS. 

We have learned that the highly desirable flavor and 
aroma of butter are produced by the development of the 
lactic fermentation. In the following discussion we shall 
take up the means of controlling this fermentation and 
treat of the more mechanical side of cream ripening. This 
will include: (i) the ripening temperature; (2) time 
in ripening; (3) agitation of cream during ripening. 

Ripening Temperature. Since the lactic acid bac- 
teria develop best at a temperature of 90° to 98° F. 
it would seem desirable to ripen cream at these tem- 
peratures. But this is not practicable because of the 
unfavorable effect of high temperatures on the body 
of the cream and the butter. Good butter can be pro- 
duced, however, under a wide range of ripening tem- 
peratures. The limits may be placed at 60° and 80°. 
Temperatures below 60° are too unfavorable for the 
development of the lactic acid bacteria. Any check 
upon the growth of these germs increases the chances 
for the development of other kinds of bacteria. But 
it may be added that when cream has reached an 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 173 

acidity of .4% or more, the ripening may be finished at a 
temperature between 55° and 60° with good results. In 
general practice a temperature between 60° and 70° gives 
the best results. This means that the main portion of the 
ripenmg is done at this temperature. The ripening is 
always finished at temperatures lower than this. 

Time in Ripening. As a rule quick ripening gives 
better results than slow. The reason for this is evident. 
Quick ripening means a rapid development of the lactic 
fermentation and, therefore, a relatively slow develop- 
ment of other fermentations. Practical experience shows 
us that the growth of the undesirable germs is slow in 
proportion as that of the lactic is rapid. For instance, 
when we attempt to ripen cream at 55° F., a tempera- 
ture unfavorable for the growth of the lactic acid bac- 
teria, a more or less bitter flavor is always the result. 
This is so because the bitter germs develop better at low 
temperatures than the lactic acid bacteria. 

Stirring Cream. It is very essential in cream ripen- 
ing to agitate the cream frequently to insure uniform 
ripening. When cream remains undisturbed for some 
time the fat rises in the same way that it does in milk, 
though in a less marked degree. The result is that the 
upper layers are richer than the lower and will sour less 
rapidly, since the action of the lactic acid germs is 
greater in thin than in rich cream. 

This uneven ripening leads to a poor bodied cream. 
Instead of being smooth and glossy, it will appear coarse 
and curdy when poured from a dipper. The importance 
of stirring frequently during ripening should therefore 
not be underestimated. 

The Use of Sour Milk (Starter). Cream produced 
under cleanly conditions ordinarily contains many kinds 



174 DAIRY FARMING 

of bacteria — good, bad, and indifferent — and to insure a 
large predominance of the lactic acid type in the ripening 
process, it is necessary to reinforce the bacteria of this 
type already existing in the cream by adding large quan- 
tities of them in a pure form, that is, unmixed with un- 
desirable species. Clean flavored sour milk or skim milk 
at the point of curdling is practically a pure culture of 
lactic acid organisms, and the addition of about lo pounds 
of such milk to every loo pounds of cream will result 
in a better and more uniform quality of butter. 

Amount of Acid to Develop. Cream of average ricn- 
ness should have an acidity of from 0.5 to 0.6 per cent, 
when churned. A rich cream requires less acid than a 
thin cream. 

Sweet and Sour Cream. In small dairies, where only 
a few churnings are made weekly, care should be taken 
never to mix sweet and sour cream just before churning. 
This always results in a heavy loss of fat in the butter- 
milk on account of the difference in the churnability of 
sweet and sour cream. 

ACID TEST FOR CRE;AM. 

Butter makers do not find it safe to rely upon their 
noses in determining the ripeness of cream for churning. 
They use in daily practice tests by which it is possible to 
determine the actual amount of acid present. The method 
of using these tests is based upon the simplest form of 
titration, which consists in neutralising an acid with an 
alkali in the presence of an indicator which determines 
when the point of neutrality has been reached. 

In the tests for acidity of cream the alkali used is 
sodium hydroxide. This is made up of a definite strength 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



175 



so that the amount of acid can be calculated from the 
amount of alkali used. ■ ■ 

Farrington's Alkaline Tablet Test. In this test the 
alkali is used in a dry tablet form in which it is easily 
handled. Each tablet contains enough alkali to neutralize 
.034 gram of lactic acid. 

Apparatus Used for the Test. This is shown in Fig. 
48, and consists of a porcelain cup, one 17.6 c.c. pipette, 
and a 100 c.c. rubber-stoppered, graduated glass cylinder. 



PIPETTE 




Fig. 48. Farrington Acid Test Apparatus. 



Making the Solution. The solution is made in the 
graduated cylinder by dissolving 5 tablets in enough water 
to make 97 c.c. solution. When the tablets are dissolved, 
which takes from six to twelve hours, the solution should 
be well shaken and is then ready for use. The solution 
of the tablets may be hastened by placing the graduate in 
a reclining position, as shown in the cut. 



176 DAIRY FARMING 

Making the Test. With the pipette add 17.6 c.c. of 
cream to the cup, then with the same pipette add an equal 
amount of water. Now slowly add of the tablet solution, 
rotating the cup after each addition. As soon as a per- 
manent pink color appears, the graduate is read and the 
number of c.c. solution used will indicate the number of 
hundredths of one per cent of acid in the cream. Thus, 
if it required 50 c.c. of the tablet solution to neutralize the 
cream then the amount of acid would be .50%. From 
this it will be seen that with the Farrington test no calcu- 
lation of any kind is necessary. 

CHURNING. 

Theory. Under the physical properties of butter fat 
it was mentioned that this fat existed in milk in the form 
of extremely minute globules, numbering about icx),ooo,- 
000 per drop of milk. In rich cream this number is in- 
creased at least a dozen times owing to the concentration 
of the fat globules during the separation of the milk. 

So long as milk and cream remain undisturbed, the fat 
remains in this finely divided state without any tendency 
whatever to flow together. This tendency of the globules 
to remain separate was formerly ascribed to the supposed 
presence of a membrane around each globule. Later re- 
searches, however, have proven the falsity of this theory 
and we know now that this condition of the fat is due 
to the surface tension of the globules and to the dense 
layer of casein that surrounds them. 

Any disturbance great enough to cause the globules to 
break through this caseous layer and overcome their sur- 
face tension will cause them to unite or coalesce, a process 
which we call churning. In the churning of cream this 



milk and its products 177 

process of coalescing continues until the fat globules have 
united into masses visible in the churn as butter granules. 

CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE CHURNING. 

There are a number of conditions that have an impor- 
tant bearing upon the process of churning. These may 
be enumerated as follows : 

1. Temperature. 

2. Character of butter fat. 

3. Acidity of cream. 

4. Richness of cream. 

5. Amount of cream in churn. 

6. Speed of churn. 

7. Abnormal fermentations. 

I. Temperature. To have the miscroscopic globules 
unite in churning they must have a certain degree of soft- 
ness or fluidity, which is greater the higher the tempera- 
ture. Hence the higher the temperature, within certain 
limits, the quicker the churning. To secure the best re- 
sults the temperature must be such as to churn the cream 
in from thirty to forty-five minutes. This is brought 
about in different creams at quite different temperatures. 

The temperature at which cream must be churned is 
determined primarily by the character of the butter fat 
and partly also by the acidity and richness of the cream. 
Most cream is churned between 55 and 60 degrees Fahr. 

Rule for Churning Temperature. A good rule to fol- 
low with regard to temperature is this : When the cream 
enters the churn with a richness of 30 per cent and an 
acidity of .5 to .6 per cent, the temperature should be 
such that the cream will churn in from thirty to forty- 
five minutes. This will insure an exhaustive churning 
and leave the butter in a condition in which it can be 



178 DAIRY FARMING 

handled without injuring its texture. Moreover, the but- 
termilk can then be easily removed, so that when a plug 
is taken with a trier the day after it is churned the brine 
on it will be perfectly clear. 

3. Character of Butter Fat. The fat globules in 
cream from different sources and at different times have 
the proper fluidity to unite at quite different temperatures. 
This is so because of the differences in the relative amount 
of "soft" and "hard" fats of which butter fat is composed. 
When the hard fats largely predominate the butter fat 
will, of course, have a high melting point. Such fat may 
be quite hard at a temperature of 60°, while a butter fat 
of a low melting point would be comparative!}^ soft at 
this temperature. For a study of the conditions that 
influence the hardness of butter fat the reader is referred 
to the discussion of the "insoluble fats" treated in the 
chapter on milk. 

3. Acidity of Cream. This has a marked influence on 
the churning process. Sour or ripened cream churns with 
much greater ease than sweet cream because the acid 
renders it less viscous. The ease with Avhich the fat 
globules travel in cream becomes greater the less the 
viscosity. Ripe cream will therefore always churn more 
quickly than sweet cream. Ripe cream also permits of a 
higher churning temperature than sweet, which is of great 
practical importance where it is difficult to secure low 
churning temperatures. 

4. Richness of Cream. It may naturally be inferred 
that the closer the fat globules are together the more 
quickly they will unite with the same amount of concus- 
sion. In rich cream the globules are very close together, 
which renders it more easily churnable than thin cream. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



179 



The former can therefore be churned in the same length 
of time at a lower temperature than the latter. 

The ideal richness is about 30%. A cream much richer 
than this will stick to the sides of the churn, which re- 
duces the amount of concussion. The addition of water 
to the churn will overcome this stickiness and cause the 
butter to come in a reasonable length of time. It is bet- 
ter, however, to avoid an excessive richness when a ex- 
haustive churning is to be expected. 

5. Amount of Cream in Churn. The best and quick- 
est churning is secured when the churn is 
one-third full. With more or less cream 
than this, the amount of concussion is re- 
duced and the length of time in churning 
correspondingly increased. 

6. Speed of Churn. The speed of the 
churn should be such as to produce the great- 
est possible agitation or concussion of the 
cream. Too high or too low a speed reduces 
the amount of concussion. The proper speed 
for each particular churn must be determined 
by experiment. 

7. Abnormal Fermentations. The slimy 
or ropy fermentation sometimes causes trouble 
in churning by rendering the cream exces- 
sively viscous. Cream from single herds may 
become so viscous as to render churning im- 
possible. 

Dairy Thermometer. One of the essen- 
tials in making good butter is a thermometer 
Dairy like that showu in Fig. 49. It is necessary to 

Thennom- , " 

eter. watch the temperature of the cream dur- 

ing ripening, and to secure uniform and exhaustive 



180 



DAIRY FARMING 



churnings the temperature of the cream must always be 
definitely known before it enters the churn. 

CHURNING OPERATIONS, 

Churns. Of the numerous styles of churns upon the 
market there is none better than the barrel churn. For 
large dairymen, however, who have 50 or more cows, a 
combined churn and butter worker is recommended. Such 
churns, or course, require some form of power to run 
them, and no large dairy is expected to be without power. 

Preparing the Churn. 
Before adding the cream, 
the churn should be scalded 
with hot water and then 
thoroughly rinsed with 
cold water. This will 
"freshen" the churn and 
fill the pores of the wood 
with water so that the 
cream and butter will not 
stick. 

Straining Cream. All 
cream should be carefully 
strained into the churn. 
This removes the possibil- 
ity of white specks in but- 




Fig. 50.— Barrel Churn. 



ter which usually consist of curd or dried particles of 
cream. 

Adding the Color. The amount of color to be added 
depends upon the kind of cream, the season of the year 
and the market demands. 

Jersey or Guernsey cream requires much less color 
than Holstein because it contains more natural color. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 181 

During the summer when the cows are feeding on 
pastures the amount of color needed may be less than 
half that required in the winter when the cows are feed- 
ing on dry feed. 

Different markets demand different shades of color. 
The butter must therefore be colored to suit the market 
to which it is shipped. 

In the winter time about one ounce of color is required 
per one hundred pounds of butter. During the summer 
less than one-half ounce is usually sufficient. 

In case the color is not added to the cream (through an 
oversight) it may be added to the butter at the time of 
working by thoroughly mixing it with the salt. When the 
colored salt has been evenly distributed through the butter 
the color will also be uniform throughout. 

Gas in Churn. During the hrst five minutes of churn- 
ing the vent of the churn should be opened occasionally 
to relieve the pressure developed inside. This pressure 
according to Babcock, "is chiefly due to the air within 
becoming saturated with moisture and not to gas set free 
from the cream." 

Size of Granules. Butter should be churned until the 
granules are about half the size of a pea. When larger 
than this it is more difficult to remove the buttermilk and 
distribute the salt. When smaller, some of the fine grains 
are liable to pass out with the buttermilk, and the per- 
centage of water in the butter is reduced. When the 
granules have reached the right size, cold water may be 
added to the churn to cause the butter to float better. Salt 
will answer the same purpose. The churn is now given 
two or three revolutions and the buttermilk drawn off. 

Washing Butter. One washing in which as much 
wat'^r is used as there was cream is usually sufficient. 



183 DAIRY FARMING 

When butter churns very soft two washings may be ad- 
vantageous. Too much washing is dangerous, however, 
as it removes the deHcate flavor of the butter. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance 
of using clean, pure water for washing. Experiments 
have shown that mipure water seriously affects the flavor 
of butter. When the water is not perfectly pure it should 
be filtered or pasteurized. 

Salting. It is needless to say that nothing but the best 
grades of salt should be used in butter. This means sah 
readily soluble in water and free from impurities. If there 
is much foreign matter in salt, it will leave a turbid ap- 
pearance and a slight sediment when dissolved in a tumb- 
ler of clear water. 

Object of Salting. Salt adds flavor to butter and ma- 
terially increases its keeping quality. Very high salting, 
however, has a tendency to detract from the fine, delicate 
aroma of butter while at the same time it tends to cover 
up slight defects in the flavor. As a rule a butter maker 
will find it to his advantage to be able to salt his butter 
rather high. 

Rate of Salt. The rate at which butter should be 
salted, other conditions the same, is dependent upon mar- 
ket demands. The butter maker must cater to the mar- 
kets with regard to the amount of salt to use as he does 
with regard to color. 

The rate of salt used does not necessarily determine 
the amount contained in butter. For instance it is per- 
fectly possible under certain conditions to get a higher 
percentage of salt in butter by salting at the rate of one 
ounce per pound than is possible under other conditions 
by salting at the rate of one and a half ounces. This 
means that under some conditions of salting more salt is 
lost than under others. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 183 

The amount of salt retained in butter is dependent 
upon : 

1. Amount of drainage before salting. 

2. Fineness of butter granules. 

3. Amount of butter in churn. 

1. When the butter is salted before the wash water 
has had time to drain away, any extra amount of water 
remaining will wash out an extra amount of salt. It is 
good practice, however, to use a little extra salt and 
drain less before adding it as the salt will dissolve better 
under these conditions. 

2. Small butter granules require more salt than large 
ones. The reason for this may be stated as follows : The 
surface of every butter granule is covered with a thin 
film of water, and since the total surface of a pound of 
small granules is greater than that of a pound of larger 
ones, the amount of water retained on them is greater. 
Small granules have therefore the same effect as insuffi- 
cient drainage, namely, washing out more salt. 

3. Relatively less salt will stick to the churn in large 
churnings than in small, consequently less will be lost. 

Standard Rate. The average amount of salt used in 
butter is one ounce per pound. 

WORKING BUTTER. 

Object. The chief object in working butter is to evenly 
incorporate the salt. It also assists in expelling any sur- 
plus moisture. 

How to Work Butter. Where only a small amount 
of butter is made, the butter may be worked with a ladle 
in the churn. For larger amounts it is desirable, however, 
to have a separate worker like that shown in Fig. 56. 



184 



DAIRY FARMING 




Vig. 51. -Butter worker. 



Butter is worked enough when the salt has been evenly 
distributed. Just when this point has been reached can 
not always be told from the appearance of the butter 
immediately after working. But after four or six hours' 

standing the appear- 
ance of white streaks 
or mottles indicates 
that the butter has 
not been sufficiently 
worked. The rule to 
follow is to work the 
butter just enough to 
prevent the appearance 
of mottles. To avoid 
mottles it is best to 
work butter twice. The 
Fig. 52. -Butter Printer. first time, it is worked 




MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 185 

just enough to fairly incorporate the salt. It is then 
allowed to stand six or eight hours, after which white 
streaks are usually noticeable on cutting the butter with 
a string. The second working should cease as soon as 
these streaks or mottles have been removed. 

Difficult Churning. The causes of trouble in churn- 
ing may be enumerated as follows: (i) thin cream, (2) 
low temperature, (3) sweet cream, (4) high viscosity of 
cream, (5) churn too full, (6) too high or too low speed 
of churn, (7) colostrum milk, (8) advanced period of 
lactation, and (9) abnormally rich cream. 

Foaming. This is usually due to churning a thin 
cream at too low a temperature, or to a high viscosity of 
the cream. When caused by these conditions foaming 
can usually be overcome by adding warm water to the 
churn. Foaming may also be caused by having the churn 
too full, in which case the cream should be divided and 
two churnings made instead of one. 

Cleaning Churns. After the butter has been removed, 
the churn should be washed, first with moderately hot 
water, next with boiling hot water containing a little 
alkali, and finally with hot water. If the final rinsing is 
done with cold water the churn dries too slowly, which 
is apt to give it a musty smell. This daily washing should 
be supplemented occasionally with a washing with lime 
water. 

Nothing is equal to the cleansing action of well pre- 
pared lime water and its frequent use will prevent the 
peculiar churn odor that is bound to develop in churns 
not so treated. 

The outside of the churn should be thoroughly cleaned 
with moderately hot water containing a small amount of 
alkali. 



186 DAIRY FARMING 

MARKETING BUTTER. 

For fancy trade, one-pound prints wrapped in parch- 
ment paper are the most popular. These prints are 
made with a small hand printer (Fig. 54) which should 
have the dairyman's monogram cut into it. The im- 
print of the monogram in the butter will serve as a 
guarantee of its genuineness. It is also desirable to 




Fig. 53.-Print Butter Box. 



have some neat lettering on the parchment wrapper, such, 
for example, as Fancy Dairy Butter, Cold Spring Dairy 
Butter, Golden Jersey Butter, etc. Prints must be kept 
cold to preserve their attractive rectangular appearance. 
The best prices for butter are realized by selling it 
direct to the consumer. With dairymen who retail milk 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 186a 

and cream, this method of marketing not only yields the 
best prices, but is also the most convenient, because the 
butter can be disposed of at the same time as the milk 
and cream. 

A covered box like that shown in Fig. 55 is best 
adapted for carrying print butter to market. Ice may be 
packed in the box with the butter during warm weather. 

With the small butter producer the greatest trouble is 
finding a suitable market for his product. It is custom- 
ary with most of these producers to sell their butter to 
the country grocer, who, as a rule, makes little discrimi- 
nation in the quality of the butter, the good and the poor 
selling for practically the same price. No producer of 
good butter can afford to market his butter in the coun- 
try stores. Those who have made farm butter-making a 
success have invariably catered to private trade, or have 
sold their butter to well-known butter dealers. A great 
deal of butter could be sold in villages, towns, and cities 
at 25 and 30 cents a pound which would bring only 12 
or 15 cents in the country stores. Seek, therefore, pri- 
vate customers who are willing to pay for a good product, 
and if these are not within easy reach by road, try to 
reach them by rail. 

Composition of Butter. According to analysis re- 
ported by various experiment stations, American butter 
has the following average composition : 

Per cent. 

Water 13 

Fat 83 

Proteids I 

Salt 3 



186b 



DAIRY FARMING 





Fig. 54.— Butter Ladles. 



Fig. 55.— Butter Carton for 
Wrapping One-pound 
Butter Prints. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

FARM CHEESEMAKING. 

Apparatus and Materials Needed. For dairies from 
lo to 75 cows, the following list is recommended : Steam 
heating cheese vat ; boiler ; i ^ inch press screws ; cheese 
hoops ; horizontal and perpendicular cheese knives ; one 
gallon dipper; curd scoop; whisk broom; lOO cubic 
centimeter graduate ; acid test ; dairy thermometer ; rennet 
extract ; cheese color ; cheese salt ; bandages ; press cloths ; 
cheese cloth circles, and a small scales. 

Ripening the Milk. Place the night's and morning's 
milk in the cheese vat and heat to a temperature of 86° F. 
Next determine the acidity of the milk with the Far- 
rington test described on page 175. (Other tests may be 
used.) If less than 0.18% acid is found, the milk should 
be held to develop more acid. If very sweet it is desirable 
to add one or two pounds of good flavored, sour milk 
(starter, see p. 173) per 100 pounds. A good starter will 
not only hasten the ripening but will improve the flavor 
of the cheese. 

Adding Color and Rennet Extract. As soon as the 
milk shows an acidity of 0.18% to 0.2% add color at the 
rate of one ounce (30 c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk and 
thoroughly mix. The amount of color to be used depends 
upon the season of the year, the market demands and the 
kind of milk. After the color is thoroughly incorporated, 
add rennet extract (curdling agent) at the rate of about 
four ounces (120 c. c.) per 1,000 pounds of milk. The 
rennet extract should be diluted with water to the extent 

187 



188 



DAIRY FARMING 



of four or five times its own volume before adding it to 
the milk. After the rennet extract has been thoroughly 
stirred in, the milk should be allovi^ed to stand undis- 




turbed until sufficiently curdled to cut. The tempera- 
ture at the time of adding the rennet should be 86° to 
90° F. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 189 

The amount of rennet extract to be used is determined 
by the quickness with which the cheese is to ripen. If a 
quick ripening cheese is wanted, add 6 ounces per i,ooo 
pounds of milk. If a slow ripening cheese is desired, add 
3 ounces for i,ooo pounds. 

Cheese color and rennet extract are usually placed 
upon the market in liquid form. They are, however, also 
procurable in dry, tablet form in which they are pre- 
ferred for making cheese on a small scale. 

Cutting the Curd. To determine when the curd is 
ready to cut, insert the forefinger, slightly break the curd 
with the thumb, and move the finger in the direction of 
the break and parallel to, and half an inch below, the 
surface. If the whey in the break is clear, the curd is 
ready to cut; if milky, the curdling has not progressed 
far enough. The cutting is done as follows : First cut 
the curd in horizontal layers with the horizontal knife ; 
next cut lengthwise and crosswise, alternately, with the 
perpendicular knife until the curd cubes are about three- 
eighths of an inch on a side. 

Warming and Stirring the Curd. Immediately after 
cutting, stir the curd very gently, yet enough to prevent 
the particles from matting together. Run the palm of 
the hand along the sides and bottom of the vat to remove 
any adhering curd. After lo minutes stirring, gradually 
apply heat and bring the temperature to ioo° F. in about 
30 minutes. After this temperature has been reached, 
the curd may be stirred at intervals of 10 minutes until 
ready to remove the whey. It is important to keep the 
temperature as close to 100° F. as possible. 

Drawing Off the Whey. When a bunch of curd is 
pressed between the two hands and on relieving the pres- 
sure the particles fall apart readily, the curd is ready for 



190 DAIRY P ARMING 

the removal of the whey. When this firmness is reached, 
the whey should show about 0.17% acid. When the milk 
is set at the proper ripeness, the degree of firmness and 
amount of acid indicated above are reached in about two 
and one-half hours after adding the rennet extract. 

Remove the whey through a faucet or by means of a 
siphon. Place a perforated wooden rack about two 
inches high at one end of the vat and cover it with a 
piece of muslin or cheese cloth. Scoop the curd upon 
the rack and stir. The rack has the advantage of drain- 
ing the curd quickly and also permits the use of hot 
water under the curd to assist in keeping the temperature 
at 98° F., a temperature which should be maintained up 
to within 10 or 15 minutes of salting. 

If a rather moist, open textured cheese is desired, stir 
30 minutes after the removal of the whey and salt. In 
case a firm, close-textured cheese is wanted, the curd 
must be stirred at frequent intervals for a period of about 
two hours before salting, so as to allow more acid to 
develop. A firm cheese is especially desirable during 
warm weather because of its superior keeping quality. 

When the milk is not of uniformly good quality, and 
when an especially close-textured and uniform cheese is 
desired, the curd should be allowed to mat upon the racks. 
This is accomplished as follows: As soon as removed 
from the whey the curd is stirred a few minutes, spread 
about six inches deep upon the rack, and then allowed 
to mat 15 minutes, after which it is cut into strips about 
8 by 12 inches and then turned. After another 15 min- 
utes, turn again and pile the strips two layers deep; 15 
minutes later turn again and pile three layers deep. 
Usually after one and a half to two hours matting the 
curd tears like chicken breast, which indicates that it is 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 191 

ready to cut into little strips the size of a finger. This 
done, the curd is stirred about 30 minutes and then 
salted. 

Salting. If a fast-curing cheese is desired, salt at 
the rate of 2^4 pounds of salt per 100 pounds of curd. 
When a slow-ripening cheese is desired salt at the rate of 
2^ pounds. Use only the best grade of salt, and have 
the curd at a temperature of about 90° F. at the time of 
salting. 

Molding and Pressing. Twenty to thirty minutes 
after salting, the curd is ready for the hoops (molds) 
which are prepared as follows: Place a piece of muslin 
in the bottom of the hoop and on top of this a cheese 
cloth circle somewhat less in diameter than the hoop. 
Now place the bandage on the bandager so that when 
the latter is in position the bandage will lap slightly over 
the cheese cloth circle in the bottom of the hoop. Next 
put in the curd. This done, cover with a piece of muslin 
and put on the cover (follower). Apply pressure very 
gradually at the start and do not apply full pressure 
(about 20 lbs. to the square inch) until after 20 to 30 
minutes' pressing. Shortly after full pressure has been 
applied, remove the follower, the muslin cloth, and 
bandager. Turn the projecting bandage over onto the 
cheese. Next place a cloth circle over the top, replace 
the muslin and bandager, and then apply full pressure 
for about 12 hours, when the cheese is taken out of the 
hoop, any folds or irregularities in the bandage are 
straightened out, the cheese is washed off with hot 
water, and put back into the hoop inverted. Press about 
ten hours longer and remove the cheese from the hoop 
and put it into a suitable place for curing. Leave the 
cheese cloth circles on the cheese. 



192 DAIRY FARMING 

Ripening or Curing. After leaving the press the 
cheese should be placed in a cool, damp room with ample 
ventilation. Keep the temperature as near 60° F. as pos- 
sible. The curing or ripening process, which consists of 
the transformation of insoluble into soluble casein, re- 
quires from two to eight months, according to the amount 
of rennet extract and salt used, amount of moisture in 
the cheese, and the temperature at which it is ripened. 
The higher the temperature and moisture, the quicker 
the cheese will ripen. During the first three weeks the 
cheese should be turned and rubbed daily, and if any 
portion of it is not covered with cheese cloth, grease 
should be applied to prevent cracking. If the curing 
room is dry, the cheese should be covered with a thin 
layer of parafiine about a week after it is made, to pre- 
vent excessive loss of moisture. 

Composition. Cured cheddar cheese has the follow- 
ing average composition: Water, 34% ; fat, 36.5% ; pro- 
teids, 26%; and ash, 3.5%. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



STARTERS. 



Definition. Starter is the general term applied to 
cultures of lactic acid organisms, whether they have been 
selected artificially in a laboratory, or at dairies by pick- 
ing out milk that seems to contain these organisms to 
the exclusion of others. A good starter may be defined 
as a clean flavored batch of sour milk or sour skim-milk. 

The word starter derives its name from the fact that 
a starter is used to "start" or assist the development of 
the lactic fermentation in cream ripening. 

Object of Starters. Cream and milk ordinarily con- 
tain many kinds of bacteria — good, bad, and indifferent 
— and to insure the predominance of the lactic acid type 
in the ripening process it is necessary to reinforce the 
bacteria of this type already existing in the cream or 
milk by adding large quantities of them in a pure form, 
that is, unmixed with undesirable species. 

The bacterial or plant life of cream may be aptly com- 
pared with the plant life of a garden. In both we find 
plants of a desirable and undesirable character. The 
weeds of the garden correspond to the bad fermentations 
of cream. If the weeds get the start of the cultivated 
vegetables, the growth of the latter will be checked or 
suppressed. So with the bacterial fermentations of 
cream. When the lactic acid bacteria predominate, other 
fermentations will be checked or crowded out. The 

193 



194 DAIRY FARMING 

use of a liberal amount of starter nearly always insures 
a majority of good bacteria and the larger this majority 
the better the product. 

NATURAL STARTERS. 

Natural starters are those obtained by allowing milk 
or skim-milk to sour in the ordinary way. If the milk 
or skim-milk is produced and handled under cleanly con- 
ditions, it will have a fairly good flavor when soured to 
the point of thickening. But it is difficult, even under 
cleanly condition, to get uniformly good flavored sour 
milk or skim-milk by allowing it to sour in the usual 
way and for this reason the following method of pre- 
paring natural starters should be given preference. 

Selected Natural Starters. The most satisfactory 
natural starters are selected and prepared in the follow- 
ing manner: Secure, say, one quart of milk from each 
of half a dozen healthy cows not far advanced in lacta- 
tion, and fed on good feed. Before drawing the milk, 
brush the flanks and udders of the cows and then moisten 
them with water, or preferably, coat thinly with vaseline 
to prevent dislodgment of dust. Then, after rejecting the 
first few streams, draw the milk into sterilized quart 
jars provided with narrow necks. Now allow the milk 
to sour, uncovered, in a clean, pure atmosphere at a 
temperature between 65° and 90° F. When loppered 
pour off the top and introduce the sample with the best 
flavor into about forty pounds of sterilized skim-milk 
and sour at a temperature of about 70° F. 

A starter thus selected can be propagated for a month 
or more by daily inoculating newly sterilized or pasteur- 
ized milk with a small amount of the old or mother 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 195 

starter. Usually three or four pounds of the mother 
starter added to one hundred pounds of pasteurized skim- 
milk will sour it in twenty-four hours at a temperature 
of 65° F. Under certain conditions of weather this 
amount may possibly have to be modified a little, for it 
is well known that on hot sultry days milk will sour 
more quickly at a given temperature than on cooler days. 
The best rule to follow is to use enough of the mother 
starter to sour the milk in twenty-four hours at a tem- 
perature of 65° F. 

In the heating process all of the active bacteria in the 
skim-milk have been destroyed, thus leaving a clean field 
for the development of the lactic acid bacteria added to 
it from the bottle. 

From what has been said it will be seen that the 
method of using the lactic acid bacteria is similar to 
the use of yeast germs in bread making. The original 
germs obtained in the way above described, or from the 
manufacturer, may be propagated for weeks by daily 
transferring a small amount of the thickened skim-milk 
to newly pasteurized skim-milk. 

COMMERCIAL STARTERS, 

Commercial starters usually consist of a single species 
of lactic acid organisms. These starters are prepared in 
laboratories where the utmost precautions are taken to 
keep them free from undesirable germs. The methods 
by which the good bacteria are separated from the bad 
are quite complicated and of too little practical value to 
permit a discussion of them here. Suffice it to say that 
such separation is possible only with the skilled bac- 
teriologist. 



196 DAIRY FARMING 

Preparation. Most of the commercial cultures are 
sent out in one-ounce bottles which are hermetically 
sealed. The method of making starters from them is 
the same for all whether they are obtained in the liquid 
or in the dry form. 

In making the first batch of commercial starter, the 
entire contents of the bottle is put into a quart of skim- 
milk, sterilized by keeping it at a temperature of 200° 
F. for two hours, and then cooling to 80° which tem- 
perature should be maintained until the starter has thick- 
ened. A new starter is now prepared by introducing the 
quart of starter into about forty pounds of skim-milk, 
pasteurized by keeping it at a temperature of 170° to 185° 
for thirty minutes and then cooling to 65° F. All sub- 
sequent starters are prepared in the same way except 
that the amount of mother starter for inoculation must 
be reduced a little for a few days because the germs 
become more vigorous after they have propagated several 
days. 

The first and second starters prepared from a new 
culture seldom have the good flavor produced in sub- 
sequent starters. The cause of this in all probability 
is the inactive condition of the germs and the peculiar 
fllavor of the medium in which they are sent out. 

RENEWAIv OF STARTERS. 

Under average farm conditions it is policy to 
renew the starter at least once a month by purchasing 
a new bottle of culture. It will be found that after the 
starter has been propagated for two or three weeks bad 
germs will begin to manifest themselves as a result of 
imperfect pasteurization, contamination from the air, or 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 197 

from overripening, so that its original good flavor may 
be seriously impaired at the end of one month's use. It 
is only where the utmost precautions are taken in pas- 
teurizing the milk and ripening the starter, that it is 
possible to propagate a starter for many weeks and still 
maintain a good flavor. 

POINTERS ON STARTERS. 

1. Starters give best results when added to cream 
or milk immediately after they have thickened. 

2. An overripe starter produces somewhat the same 
efifect in butter as overripened cream. Curdy flavors are 
usually the result of such starters. 

3. To prevent overripening, starter cans or starter 
vats must be used in which the temperature can be kept 
under perfect control. 

4. Skim-milk furnishes the best medium for starters, 
since this has undergone the cleansing action of the 
separator and is free from fat, which hampers the growth 
of lactic acid bacteria. 

5. Agitate and uncover the milk while heating to in- 
sure a uniform temperature and to permit undesirable 
odors to escape. 

6. Always dip the thermometer in hot water before 
inserting it into pasteurized milk. The pasteurizing pro- 
cess becomes a delusion when dirty thermometers are 
used for observing temperatures. 

7. Always use a sterilized can for making a new 
starter. 

8. Keep the starter can loosely covered after the milk 
has been heated to prevent germs from the air getting 
into it. 



198 DAIRY FARMING 

9. Stir the starter occasionally the first five hours after 
inoculation to insure uniform ripening. 

10. Never disturb the starter after it has begun thick- 
ening until ready to use. 

11. When a new bottle of commercial culture is used, 
the first two starters from it should not be used in cream 
as the flavor is usually inferior on account of the slow 
growth of the bacteria and the undesirable flavor imparted 
by the medium in which the cultures are sent out. A 
commercial starter is usually at its best after it has been 
propagated a week. 

12. Always sterilize the neck of a new bottle of culture 
before emptying the contents into sterilized skim-milk. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

SOFT AND Fancy cheese making. 

There is a rapidly growing demand everywhere for the 
soft varieties of cheese such as cottage, Neufchatel and 
cream, and the manufacture of this class of cheese 
is becoming a very remunerative branch of dairying. 
The soft varieties of cheese are deservedly becoming pop- 
ular because of their wholesomeness and palatability. 

COTTAGE CHEESE MAKING. 

Cottage cheese, which is made from skim-milk, may 
be manufactured in either of two ways, namely, with 
or without rennet extract. The cheese resulting from 
the use of rennet extract is finer grained though some- 
what more acid than that obtained without rennet. 

Rennet Method. When rennet extract is used, the 
night's separator skim-milk is held at a temperature of 
about 65 degrees F. until the following morning when 
it should show about 0.2 per cent acid. The temperature 
is then raised to 75 degrees F., and rennet extract 
added to the skim-milk at the rate of one-twentieth of an 
ounce (about one-half teaspoonful) per hundred pounds 
of milk. To insure an even distribution of the rennet, 
it should be diluted with a cup of water before mixing 
it with the milk. As soon as the rennet has been thor- 
oughly mixed with the milk, the latter should be allowed 

199 



200 DAIRY FARMING 

to stand quietly at a temperature of about 70 to 75 de- 
grees F. for 24 hours, when a firm curd will have formed. 
The curd is now carefully dumped into a cotton bag or 
strainer and allowed to drain until all free moisture 
has escaped. Salt is next added at the rate of one and 
one-half ounces per ten pounds of cheese. The palat- 
ability of the cheese is much improved by adding a small 
amount of rich cream to it. 

Fairly good results may be obtained by omitting the 
rennet. 

Starter Method. This method yields the highest 
quality of cheese when fine flavored starter is used. Put 
the skim-milk into a vat and sour it with a good starter 
at a temperature of between 90 and 95 degrees F. The 
more starter used, up to 25 per cent, the better the qual- 
ity of the cheese. Thoroughly mix the starter with the 
skim-milk and allow to remain undisturbed until firmly 
curdled. When this stage is reached, cut the curd, the 
same as in cheddar cheese making, and at once begin 
stirring by hand. Raise the temperature to 104 degrees 
F., keeping the curd constantly stirred during the heat- 
ing process. After this the curd should be stirred occa- 
sionally for about 40 minutes, when the whey may be 
drained ofif. 

The draining is best accomplished in a tin strainer 
covered with a piece of cheesecloth. The curd must be 
hand-stirred as soon as it has been dumped into the 
strainer, but the stirring should be done very gently at 
the start to prevent loss by mashing the curd particles. 
Continue the stirring until the curd is firm enough to pre- 
vent the particles sticking together, which usually re- 
quires about five minutes. As soon as the curd has been 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 201 

stirred dry enoiip^h it is wrapped in the cloth strainer 
and squeezed with the hands until most of the free whe)^ 
has been removed, that is, until it is dry enough to per- 
mit granulating it to fine particles by rubbing with the 
hands. 

When the curd has been squeezed dry enough and 
thoroughly granulated by rubbing and stirring with the 
hands, it should be salted at the rate of about one and 
one-half ounces of salt per ten pounds of curd. After 
salting the curd is soaked with skim-milk or milk ; or 
where a high quality of cheese is desired a thin cream 
should be used. 

Packing Cottage Cheese. The same packages will 
answer for cheese made by either of the two methods. 
For simplicity and cheapness there is no better method of 
packing than the following : With an ordinary butter 
printer, print the cheese in one-pound blocks and then cut 
the blocks in two. This will make packages weighing one- 
half pound each. The half-pound blocks are wrapped 
in thin parchment or oiled paper in a manner similar 
to wrapping one-pound butter prints. The sheets of 
parchment or oiled paper for this purpose should be six 
inches wide by ten and one-half inches long. Any dealer 
in dairy supplies can furnish this paper at a very small 
cost. If the cheese is to be sold in one pound packages 
the wrapping paper should be eight and one-half inches 
wide by ten and one-half inches long. Cottage cheese 
may also be packed in water-proof packages such as are 
used for carrying ice cream, oysters, etc. The fiber but- 
ter boxes, made of pasteboard and lined with parchment 
paper, will also be found satisfactory for this purpose. 
Both of the above styles of package should be lined with 



202 DAIRY FARMING 

parchment paper before putting the cheese into them. 

Some use wide-mouthed, single service milk bottles for 
packing cottage cheese. 

Marketing. When much cheese is made, it should 
be marketed at fancy grocery stores and meat markets. 
If made on farms that operate daily milk routes in the 
city, much cheese can be sold on these routes to con- 
sumers direct, thus saving the middleman's profits. The 
average retail price of the cheese is ten cents per pound. 

The yield of cottage cheese, when made according to 
the methods herein described will approximate 15 pounds 
of cheese per 100 pounds of skim-milk. 

MAKING ne;ufchate;l cheese. 

There are two methods by which American Neufchatel 
cheese may be made, namely, with and without the use 
of starter. The method of making the cheese without 
starter is as follows : Place the night's milk preferably in 
shotgun cans and cool to a temperature as near 70 de- 
grees F. as possible. Next add at the rate of about one 
teaspoonful of rennet extract for each hundred pounds of 
whole milk. The rennet should first be diluted in a cup 
of water and then thoroughly mixed with the milk. If 
the temperature of the milk is kept at 70 degrees F. it 
will be thoroughly curdled in from 15 to 20 hours, when 
it should be perceptibly sour to the taste. The actual 
amount of acidity at this stage should be about 0.3 per 
cent. The curd is now poured onto a strainer rack cov- 
ered with a cotton strainer cloth, or it may be poured 
or dipped into cotton bags, to drain. After the curd has 
drained an hour, light pressure should be applied to it 
which may be gradually increased to hasten the draining. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 203 

As a rule, it is desirable to have the draining com- 
pleted in about three hours, the temperature during this 
process being maintained at about 70 degrees F. Apply- 
ing moderate pressure will hasten the draining and is 
recommended for best results. As soon as the curd has 
sufficiently drained, salt is added at the rate of one ounce 
to every five or six pounds of cheese. The cheese should 
be thoroughly kneaded with the hands to distribute the 
salt evenly and to give it a smooth consistency. It is 
now molded into cylindrical packages, 1^x2^ inches, 
weighing one-fourth of a pound. These cylindrical 
masses of cheese are first wrapped in thin parchment or 
oiled paper and then wrapped in tin foil. These pack- 
ages usually retail at five cents each. 

Starter Method. When starter is used a better flav- 
ored and more uniform cheese is possible. The starter 
may consist of well thickened whole milk allowed to 
sour in a natural way, but whole milk soured with pure 
culture of lactic acid bacteria is preferable. Where pure 
cultures are used the whole milk intended for starter 
should be pasteurized before inoculating it with the cul- 
ture. 

When starter is used the cheese is made as follows : 
Add at the rate of one pound of starter to four pounds 
of fresh whole milk. The mixture should have a tem- 
perature of about 80 degrees F. Next add at the rate 
of one-half tablespoonful of rennet extract per hundred 
pounds of milk, mixing the rennet with the milk as 
previously explained. When thoroughly curdled, which 
usually requires about one hour, the curd is ready to 
drain. The rest of the process is carried out the same as 
when no starter is used. 



204 DAIRY FARMING 

Neufchatel cheese yields from i8 to 20 pounds per 
100 pounds of milk. 

CREAM CHEESE. 

Cream cheese is made from milk containing about ten 
per cent butter fat; that is, milk reinforced with cream. 
Like Neufchatel cheese, this cheese may be made with 
and without starter, and the processes are the same as 
with Neufchatel cheese, except that it will be found ad- 
vantageous to have the temperature from three to five 
degrees higher. Much butter fat is saved when making 
cream cheese by the starter method. Cream cheese is 
molded in rectangular forms, 1 34^2^4x2^ inches, hold- 
ing about one-quarter of a pound. These packages us- 
ually retail at ten cents each. 

CEUB CHEESE. 

Another kind of cheese that is very much relished and 
that can be made by anyone, is known as "club" or 
"potted" cheese. The method of making this cheese is 
as follows : Grind up with an ordinary meat grinder five 
pounds of old, well-ripened cheddar cheese of good fla- 
vor, and mix this with one pound of good butter. The 
mixing is easily accomplished with a bread mixer. The 
mixing should be continued until the cheese has a uni- 
form consistency, free from lumps. Running the mix- 
ture through the grinder a second time and working it 
with the hands will assist in reducing the lumps. This 
cheese can be packed in small tin-top jelly tumblers, cov- 
ering the top of the cheese with parchment paper. This 
makes an exceedingly palatable cheese which retails, as 
a rule, at forty cents a pound. The cheese may also be 
packed in the same manner as Neufchatel 



CHAPTER XXV. 

COOLING AND AERATION OF MILK AND CREAM. 

Importance of Low Temperature. Milk always con- 
tains bacteria no matter how cleanly the conditions under 
which it is drawn. At ordinary temperatures these bac- 
teria increase with marvelous rapidity ; at low tempera- 
tures their growth practically ceases. The effect of tem- 
perature on bacterial development is graphically shown 
in Fig. 57. 







Fig. 67. — Relation of temperature to bacterial growth. 

a represents a single bacterium; b, its progeny in twenty-four hours in 
milk kept at 50° F.; c, its progeny in twenty-four hours in milk kept at 70° F. 
(Bui. 26, Storrs, Conn.) 

At a temperature of 50° F. the bacteria multiplied five 
times ; at 70° F. they multiplied seven hundred and fifty 
times. 

Roughly speaking, at 98° F. bacteria multiply one hun- 

205 



206 DAIRY FARMING 

dred times faster than at 70° F. At 32° F. bacterial de- 
velopment practically ceases. 

Milk or cream may be kept sweet a long time at 40° 
to 45° F. because the lactic acid bacteria practically stop 
growing at these temperatures. But there are other 
classes of bacteria that can grow at these temperatures, 
as evidenced by the production of undesirable flavors. 
Such flavors usually become noticeable after thirty-six 
hours. Where milk and cream are to be kept in the best 
possible condition, it is necessary to reduce the tempera- 
ture to within a few degrees of freezing. 

Lack of thorough cooling necessitates two deliveries of 
milk per day, and, what is still worse, requires many 
dairymen to milk their cows shortly after midnight and 
shortly after midday, a drudgery which casts a damper 
upon the whole milk business. Lack of cooling also means 
financial loss through souring of milk and leads to many 
dissatisfied customers. 

Prompt Cooling. Milk should be cooled as quickly 
as possible after it is drawn. Indeed, the milk should be 
taken directly from the cow to the cooling room and 
promptly cooled. To do this conveniently it is necessary 
to have the cooling room located as near the barn as is 
consistent with freedom from barn odors. 

Too often the milk is allowed to remain in the barn 
until all the cows have been milked, and this may require 
from two to three hours, depending upon the number 
of cows milked by each milker. A few hours delay in 
cooling reduces the keeping quality of milk to a far greater 
extent than is commonly supposed. 

Importance of Aeration. Milk not only con- 

tains bacteria immediately after it is drawn, but it 
also contains gases, chief among which, perhaps, is car- 



COOLING AND AERATION 207 

boiiic acid gas. These gases should be removed as quickly 
as possible after milking by exposing the milk in thin 
sheets to the atmosphere. Fortunately the construction 
of modern coolers is such as to make it possible to do 
the cooling and aerating in one operation. 

Formerly it was customary for dairymen to aerate 
their milk before cooling. Such practice is known to give 
somewhat better aeration than is possible where the cool- 
ing and aerating are performed in the same operation ; 
yet the difference is so slight that consumers cannot detect 
it. The practice of aerating first and cooling afterward 
is therefore being abandoned. 

Coolers. All modern coolers permit cooling with ice 
water. Without this a sufficiently low temperature can- 
not be obtained to stop practically all bacterial growth. 
To meet the requirements of dairies of different sizes, sev- 
eral styles of coolers are herewith described and illus- 
trated. 

Corrugated Cooler. This style of cooler is shown in 
Fig. 58, which also shows a desirable method of fastening 
it. It is especially adapted to dairies having from fifteen 
to thirty cows. The cooler consists of two parts : An 
upper section which is used to cool milk and cream with 
uniced water, and a lower section through which ice water 
is circulated. 

A storage tank for well water may be placed above 
the ceiling. From this the water is admitted to the upper 
section through the valve which is used to regulate 
the flow. As shown by the arrows the water enters the 
section at the bottom and discharges at the top. The 
waste water may be conducted to the feed water tank of 
the boiler, to a watering trough, or other places where 
it may be useful. 



208 



DAIRY FARMING 




Milk Reservoir 



'^^ 



(H 



3trr 



"Ceu-ino 






^ 



Fig. 58.— Showing Corrugated Cooler and Method of Support. 

By means of the pump at the left, the ice water is 
forced back into the small tank at the right, which con- 
tains finely crushed ice. 



COOLING AND AERATION 



209 



Cone=Shaped Cooler. For dairies having fewer than 
fifteen cows a cheap cooler Hke that shown in Fig. 59 
may be used to advantage. The water enters the bottom 
of the cooler and discharges at the top, while the milk 
flows in a thin sheet over the outside. Ice may be placed 

inside the cooler, if desired. 
The can at the top is the 
milk receiver, which has 
Small openings at the bot- 
tom near the outside, 
through which the milk 
discharges in fine streams, 
directly upon the cone be- 
low. 

Cooling Without Spe= 
cial Coolers. When no 
^^ special coolers are at hand 
"""" milk and cream should be 
Fi g. 59.-Cone Shaped Cooler. coolcd in Small caus by 
placing them in a tank or an oil barrel cut in two. Cold 
water is pumped into the tank or barrel in such a way 
that the cold water drops into the bottom of the tank, 
thus forcing out the warm surface water. 

Water should be pumped into the tank at frequent in- 
tervals until the milk or cream has nearly reached the 
temperature of the water. The time of cooling is ma- 
terially shortened by frequent stirring, which is a very 
essential part in cooling milk and cream in cans. 

Where milk is placed in large cans and stirred little, 
farmers lose in having the test lowered by hard par- 
ticles of cream forming at the top. Where milk is 
properly cooled, hard fiakes of cream or churned cream 
will not be found on top of the milk. 




210 DAIRY FARMING 

Precautions in Cooling. While cooling milk or cream, 
the room should be kept damp, especially the floor. 
This will keep down any dust that may be in the room 
and thus keep it from getting into the milk. Draughts 
should be avoided during cooling for the same rea- 
son. In this connection it is well to remember that 
the real harm is not so much in the dust particles them- 
selves as in the many bacteria which usually adhere to 
them. 

Where coolers are left exposed to the air of the room 
after they have been cleaned and sterilized, they should 
be rinsed off with boiling water just before using. 

It is important also to use a reliable thermometer. 
Ordinary cheap thermometers often read two to six de- 
grees too high or too low. A standard thermometer 
should be on hand, by which the cheaper ones may be 
standardized. 

Never Use Ice in Milk or Cream. Adding ice di- 
rectly to milk and cream is a pernicious, though not un- 
common, practice. The best of natural ice contains dirt 
and bacteria. Even ice made by mechanical means from 
distilled water often contains considerable quantities of 
impurities. Ice also is an adulterant just as much as 
water. In case of cream cooled with ice the body is un- 
satisfactory, even if the cream contains the required 
amount of fat. 

COIvD STORAGE. 

Cold storage of some kind is indispensable to a well 
equipped dairy. Many, however, lack this essential, 
either bcause they do not appreciate its importance, or 



COOLING AND AERATION 



211 



because of the rather high price of commercial refrig- 
erators. 

The construction of this box, shown in Fig. 60, con- 




Fig. 60. — Cross-Section of Cheap Ice Box. 

sists essentially of two boxes separated by one-inch strips 
placed at intervals of about one foot. Double thickness 
of building paper is placed on both sides of the strips 



212 DAIRY FARMING 

and tacked to the boxes. A one-inch strip, two inches 
wide, covers the upper space between the one-inch strips, 
thus making a dead-air space between the two boxes. 
The construction of the cover is the same as that of the 
bottom, with the exception that there is a flange at the 
front and sides of the cover. The sides, bottom and 
cover of the refrigerator are built of three-quarter-inch 
tongued and grooved lumber, five and a half inches 
wide. The ends are constructed of one and one-eighth 
inch tongued and grooved flooring three and a half 
inches wide. The inside of the ice box is lined with 
galvanized iron. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

HOW TO SECURE A GOOD MARKET. 

Quality. As a rule it is easy enough to secure some 
kind of a market, but to secure the best frequently re- 
quires considerable effort. To get fancy prices requires 
first of all that the product be of superior quality. This 
is particularly true of milk. The extensive agitation in 
recent years for clean, pure milk has had the effect of 
putting a high premium upon such milk. The public is 
becoming aware of the dangers which lurk in dirty, un- 
sanitary milk and is willing to pay a good price for milk 
whose wholesomeness is unquestioned. 

Value of Advertising, To obtain big prices it is not 
enough to have products of superior quality, but what- 
ever particular merits they have must be forcibly brought 
to the attention of consumers. In other words, a certain 
amount of advertising is necessary. 

It is good policy to furnish prospective customers a 
few free samples and to distribute leaflets describing the 
conditions under which the products are produced and 
handled. If the milk is produced in clean, ventilated, 
whitewashed stables, and from cows which are regularly 
tested for tuberculosis ; if the milk is handled by clean, 
healthy attendants and is thoroughly cooled and aerated 
immediately after milking; and if, in addition, all this 
is certified to by a competent inspector, an increase in 
prices and patronage is certain to follow when such facts 
are placed before the public. 

213 



214 DAIRY FARMING 

The majority of city consumers have little conception 
of the conditions under which average milk is produced. 
For this reason the man who is producing clean milk will 
find it highly profitable to place in contrast vivid pictures 
of the conditions that yield average milk and those that 
yield sanitary milk. 

Investigate Outside Markets. Often outside mark- 
ets offer better prices for milk and cream than does the 
home market. This is especially true of cream. This 
product permits of long distance shipping and many out- 
side markets may be glad to get it at fancy prices when 
the home market may be entirely overstocked. 

Dairymen must not expect the market to come to them, 
however; they must seek the market. A visit or corre- 
spondence with managers of cafes, hotels, restaurants, 
drug stores and ice cream manufactories in different 
cities, is frequently the means of securing more business 
and better prices. 

Where one is just starting in the dairy business or 
trying new markets, it is good policy, as a rule, not to 
ask very high prices at the start. First demonstrate the 
merits of your products. If these are of a high order 
consumers will gradually respond to demands for in- 
creased prices rather than lose the products. Too high 
prices at the start are likely to discourage prospective 
buyers, and thus deprive you of an opportunity to prove 
the value of your goods. 

Uniformityi One of the essentials in building up a 
good market is uniformity of product. Where this is 
lacking, improvements in other directions will be of little 
avail. On the other hand, products which are uniformly 
the same, week after week, and month after month, are 



TO SECURE A GOOD MARKET 215 

likely to command good prices even when of only medium 
quality. 

Punctuality. Another essential in building up a good 
market is punctuality. If your customer expects his milk 
at 7 :30, do not deliver it at 7 40 ; deliver early rather 
than late. If you are shipping cream or milk you cannot 
afford to miss your train — even a single time. It gen- 
erally means greater disappointment at the other end of 
the line than one would anticipate. 

Try to Please. Always put yourself in an attitude 
to please. If criticisms come concerning your products, 
you cannot afford to resent them. Usually there is reason 
for the criticism. Try to discover the trouble and remedy 
it. 

Delivery Outfit. Cleanliness and neatness must char- 
acterize ' the dairy business throughout. Milk wagons, 
cans, bottles, drivers, etc., must present a clean appear- 
ance. Where they do not, it is usually an easy matter 
to surmise the condition of milk. 

Use a Trade Mark.- The name or monogram of the 
dairy, placed upon the products and delivery wagons, 
guarantees genuineness and will materially assist in se- 
curing a better and more extended market. It is one 
of the best ways of advertising a superior product. 

Secure Your Market Early. If it is intended to sell 
cream for manufacture into ice cream, it is important 
to get a market early in the spring. It is difficult to find 
one in the flush of the ice cream season, because ice cream 
dealers, as a rule, contract considerably in advance of 
the time they need the cream. If it is intended to supply 
winter resorts, apply for the market early in the fall. 
What has been said here with reference to cream applies 
also to milk. 



216 DAIRY FARMING 

Secure Reliable CustomerSi Where milk and cream 
are shipped some distance, it is important to determine 
beforehand the rehabihty of the buyer. As a rule it 
is good policy not to make more than three shipments 
before the first has been paid for. It is well, even where 
milk and cream are sold locally, to investigate the stand- 
ings of customers before their accounts have run up very 
high. 

Selling Direct to Consumers. No argument is need- 
ed to show the advantage of selling dairy products direct 
to consumers wherever this is possible. It means the 
elimination of the middleman whose profits are saved to 
the dairyman. 

Letterhead Stationery. It is not only businesslike 
to use stationery with a suitable letterhead, but it also 
serves to advertise the business. The following is sub- 
mitted as a suitable form of letterhead: 

Springdale Sanitary Dairy. 

J. C. Boone, Prop. 

Dealer in 

Pure, Bottled, Jersey Milk and Cream 

from Tuberculin Tested Cows. 
Reidsville, N. H 190. . 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

MARKETING MILK AND CREAM 
RETAILING. 



Dip Method. The old method of hauHng milk to the 
city in five, eight or ten gallon cans and removing each 
patron's allowance by means of a dipper or faucet, has 
been found so objectionable that the practice has been 
largely abandoned. The principal objections to this 
method are : ( i ) The admission of 
dust and bacteria to the milk while 
measuring it; (2) the use of unsteri- 
lized milk vessels by consumers; (3) 
exposure of the vessels to dust while 
on the steps of the consumer; (4) the 
use of unclean vessels by milkmen in 
measuring each customer's share; (5) 
lack of uniformity in the milk, espe- 
cially if removed from the cans by 
means of a faucet, in which case the 
first drawn milk is likely to be lowest 
in fat content; and (6) the possi- 
bility of drivers tampering with the 
milk. 

The Use of Bottles. Milk and cream intended for re- 
tail trade should be put into pint or quart bottles, like 
that shown in Fig. 61. The advantages of this method 
are apparent from the fact that the milk is bot- 
tled immediately after cooling and that it may be 




^0 BE WASH^f' 
'^^^ RETURNED 



Fig. 61.-MilkBoUle. 



217 



218 



DAIRY FARMING 



kept in the same bottle until it is to be consumed. 
Whenever milk is changed from one vessel to another 
there is always more or less contamination from dust and 
bacteria. 

Bottling.- For dairies having from ten to twenty 
cows, a can or vat provided with a sanitary faucet will 
do satisfactory work in filling bottles. A pouring can 
with a slightly curved spout may also be used for this 
purpose. 




Fig. 62. —Filling BotUes with Machine. (From Da. Div., U. S. Dept. of A.) 

For large dairies a bottle filler like that shown in Fig. 
62 will be found advantageous. This machine fihs six 
bottles at the same time. Larger or smaller fillers may be 
had if desired. In selecting a bottle filler secure one of 
simplest construction and preferably without rubber at- 
tachments. This is important for sanitary reasons. 

Whatever method of filling is used, it is important to 
keep the milk well stirred while filling, so as to insure 
uniform quality in all the bottles. 



RETAILING MILK AND CREAM 



219 



Immediately after filling, the bottles should be capped 
with paraffined caps made for this purpose. Fig. 
63 illustrates a cap provided with a little handle which 
facilitates its removal 
and leaves it intact. 

During bottling the 
room should be kept 
damp to keep the air 
free from dust and 
bacteria. No air cur- 
rent should be al- 
lowed to sweep in 
from the outside. 
Only clean laundered 
white .suits should be 
worn by those in 
charge of the cooling 
and bottling. 

Milk Bottle Delivery Cases. On delivery wagons 
the bottles are carried in cases holding twelve or more 




Fig. 63. - BotUe Cap with Handle. 




Fig. 64.— Galvauized Iron Milk Bottle Case. 



bottles each. These cases are made of galvanized iron 
or wood, or of both, and have light removable partitions 
inside, separating the bottles to keep them from breaking. 
Galvanized iron cases, like that shown in Fig. 64, are 



220 DAIRY FARMING 

the most sanitary and also permit putting crushed ice 
around the bottles. 

Fig. 65 shows a galvanized iron milk bottle case, 
enclosed by a box made of one-inch boards and pro- 
vided with a tight fitting cover. Cases of this kind should 
be used in warm weather to keep the milk cool during 




Fig. 60.— Insulated Galvanized Iron Milk Bottle 
Case. 

delivery. On especially warm days, crushed ice should 
be used around the bottles. This style of case is also 
recommended where bottles are shipped. 

A great deal of milk is spoiled while in transit to the 
consumer. The last milk delivered on the route may 
be on the road five or six hours before it finally 
reaches its destination. If carried in open, uniced cases, 
on warm days, an exposure of such duration may easily 
shorten the keeping quality of the milk by eight or more 
hours. 

A matter of prime importance in delivering milk in 
bottles is to have them thoroughly sterilized before using. 
Unless this is done milk will not keep long and, what is 
worse, is likely to disseminate disease along the route. 



RETAIUNG MILK AND CREAM 221 

This danger is due to the bottles' passing from one home 
to another and eventually reaching a home in which there 
is some contagious disease. In such cases there is always 
a probability that the bottles may become infected with 
the disease germs. 

Frequency of Delivering Milk. When milk is cooled 
to 45° F. or below immediately after milking and is 
held at this temperature until it reaches the consumer, one 
delivery a day is sufficient. If it is desirable, however, 
to make two deliveries a day, these should be made inde- 
pendent of the milking; that is, the night's milk should 
be delivered in the morning and the morning's milk in 
the afternoon. 

In some sections, especially in the south, milk is sold 
with little or no cooling whatever. Hence, the practice 
of delivering the morning's milk before breakfast, and 
the night's milk before supper. This practice requires 
the first milking to be done shortly after midnight and 
the second milking shortly after midday, a drudgery 
wholly unnecessary and easily obviated by thoroughly 
cooling the milk. 

Delivery Wagons. These should be clean, covered, 
well painted, and provided with good springs. The name 
of the dairy should be printed on each side. A neat and at- 
tractive delivery wagon is essential in building up a good 
trade. 

STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM. 

This is a process by which milk and cream are brought 
to a definite percentage of fat. Cream producers are 
called upon to furnish cream of a definite richness, and 
different grades may be demanded by different buyers. 
The simplest way to meet such demands is to have the 
separator deliver cream somewhat richer than the rich- 
est grade called for and to reduce this to the required 
richness by adding skim-milk. 



222 DAIRY FARMING 

Reducing Cream with Skim=milk. When a definite 
quantity of standardized cream is called for, determine 
first the amount of original cream (cream as it leaves the 
separator) required according to the following rule: 

Rule : Multiply the number of pounds of standardized 
cream called for by its test and divide the product by the 
test of the original cream. 

The difference between the amounts of original and 
standardized cream represents the amount of skim-milk 
required. 

Problem: How many pounds each of 45% cream and 
skim-milk (zero test) are required to make 60 pounds of 
18% cream? 

Applying the above rule we get, 

(60 X 18) -^45 = 24= No. lbs. of original cream. 

60 — 24 = 36 = No. lbs. of skim-milk. 

Milk may be standardized in the same way. 

Mixing Two Milks or Two Creams, or Milk and 
Cream, of Different Richness. In the preceding two 
formulas the test of the skim-milk was considered zero. 
When milks or creams of different tests are mixed the 
calculation becomes more difficult. Pearson, however, 
has devised a method by which calculations of this kind 
are very much simplified. This method is as follows : 

Draw a rectangle with two diagonals, as shown below. 
At the left hand corners place the tests of the milks or 
creams to be mixed. In the center place the richness 



STANDARDIZING MILK AND CREAM 



223 



desired. At the right hand corners place the differences 
between the two numbers in hne with these comers. 
The number at the upper right hand corner represents 
the number of pounds of milk or cream to use with the 
richness indicated in the upper left hand corner. Like- 
wise the number at the lower right hand corner repre- 
sents the number of pounds of milk or cream to use, with 
the richness indicated in the lower left hand corner. 

Example : How many pounds each of 30% cream 
and 3.5% milk required to make 25% cream? 



7^0% r\~ ^.^ z\.^ LBS, 




3.5 %L^— — ^ ^LBS. 



21.5, the difference between 3.5 and 25, is the number 
of pounds of 30% cream needed ; and 5, the difference 
between 25 and 30, is the number of pounds of 3.5% 
milk needed. 

From the ratio of milk and cream thus found, any 
definite quantity is easily made up. If, for example, 300 
pounds of 25% cream is desired, the number of pounds 
each of 30% cream and 3.5% milk is determined as fol- 
lows: 

21.5 + 5 = 26.5 

21-5 

X 300 = 243.4, the number of pounds 

of 30% cream. 



26.5 

5 
26.5 



X 300 = 56.6, the number of pounds 

of 3.5% milk. 



224 



DAIRY FARMING 
SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM. 



The essential things in shipping milk and cream are 
cleanliness and low temperature. It is possible to keep 
milk and cream in good condition for two or three days, 
if produced and handled under cleanly conditions and 




Fig. 66. -Milk Can. 




Fig. 67.— Felt Jacket on Can. 



cooled directly after milking to 40° F. or below. This 
low temperature must be maintained when long keeping 
quality is desired. Every dairy should be provided with 
a good ice box or refrigerator, into which milk and cream 



SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM 



225 



may be placed immediately after cooling and in which 
they may be kept until ready for shipment. 

Shipping in Cans. Various insulated cans are now 
upon the market and a number of these have been tested 
by the author. The tests showed that these cans possess 
about the same insulating effect as the felt jackets that 
are commonly 
wrapped around ordi- 
nary milk cans. Since 
the latter, as a rule, 
are more durable and 
more easily handled, 
they will be found 
more satisfactory 
when wrapped with a 
felt jacket than the so- 
called "insulated ship- 
ping cans. 

When milk and 
cream are cooled close 
to freezing and placed 
in ordinary milk cans 
wrapped in felt jack- 
ets, they may be safe- 
ly shipped to any 
point that may be 
reached within 
24 hours even 
i n warm weather. 
If the temperature of the milk and cream at the time of 
shipment is 50° F. or higher, then long distance ship- 
ment is best accomplished by the use of an ordinary can 
placed inside of a covered ice cream shipping tub con- 
taining ice. Such a tub has practically the same in- 




Kig. 68. —Screw Top Can. 



226 DAIRY FARMING 

sulating effect as a felt jacket, but is rather heavy and 
cumbersome and should not be used except in cases where 
it is necessary to pack ice around the cream or milk. The 
best results from the ice are secured by packing it in 
large lumps around the neck of the can. 

Shipping in Bottles. Where milk and cream are 
shipped in bottles, the latter should be placed in insulated 
delivery cases (Fig. 65) and surrounded with crushed 
ice. The cases should have the owner's address on them 
and must be kept locked while in transit. 

Mode of Shipping.- The usual way of shipping milk 
and cream is by express. In the main dairy sections bag- 
gage rates are available. These rates are lower than ex- 
press rates and can be obtained nearly everywhere by 
special arrangement with the railroad companies. 

Shipping rates should always be obtained in advance 
of shipment and the charges should be prepaid. A con- 
siderable saving is certain to be effected by rigidly ad- 
hering to this practice. Insist upon getting the lowest 
rates possible. 

Pointers on Shipping. Have the name and address 
of your dairy permanently marked in brass upon every 
can and cover; also have it sewed or stitched on the felt 
jackets. This is necessary to insure the return of your 
own goods. The name and address will be put upon the 
cans and covers by the dealer from whom they are pur- 
chased, if so requested ; or, in case unmarked cans are 
already on the premises, the brass plates with the name 
and address may be purchased from dairy supply firms 
and placed upon the cans and covers by a local tinner. 

Even when labeled as indicated above, cans will oc- 
casionally get lost. Empty cans are usually returned free 
of eharge and, for this reason, express receipts are com- 



SHIPPING MILK AND CREAM 227 

monly not taken for them. This is a mistake. If the 
purchaser of your products will take a receipt for the 
empty cans, th^ express company becomes responsible for 
them in the event they are lost. Without the receipt it 
is next to impossible to claim damages for lost goods. 

The empty cans should be washed before they are re- 
turned. This should be done for sanitary reasons as well 
as for the protection of the cans, which are short-lived 
unless washed and dried immediately after use. 

Another matter of importance in shipping is to have 
the cans full to prevent churning. 




Vig. 69.— Lead Seal and Seal Press. 

It is necessary also to have the cans sealed to prevent 
tampering with the contents. The sealing is easily accom- 
plished by means of lead seals and a seal press (Fig. 69). 

In delivering the cream or milk at the station the de- 
livery man should see to it that the cans are put in as 
cool a place as possible. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 



ICE CREAM MAKING. 



Kind of Cream. Select the best flavored sweet cream 
containing about 20% butter fat. To secure the best 
bodied ice cream and the proper swell, cream should be 
kept as near the freezing point as possible for twenty- 
four hours previous to freezing. 

Freezing Process. With an initial temperature of 
about 35° F., the time required to freeze ice cream should 
average about twelve minutes, and to get the best con- 
sistency the temperature at the close of the freezing 
process should be approximately 28° F. 

Too quick freezing causes the water to separate from 
the cream, which results in a granular ice cream. Freez- 
ing too slowly reduces the overrun and tends to make the 
ice cream smeary. 

To reduce the temperature of a mass of cream below 
the freezing point, requires a freezing mixture of a low 
temperature. Such a mixture is secvired by mixing salt 
and crushed ice in the proportion of one of salt to about 
six to twelve of ice. The purpose of the salt is to lower 
the freezing point of the melting ice and to hasten the 
melting. 

To melt one pound of ice at 32° F. into water at the 
same temperature requires 142 heat units. Rapidly melt- 
ing ice, therefore, absorbs a large quantity of heat which 

228 



ICE CREAM MAKING 229 

in the freezing of cream is largely extracted from the 
cream. 

The temperature of the ice cream mixture when start- 
ing the freezer should be as near freezing as possible to 
prevent churning the cream. The tendency to churn is 
also lessened by revolving the freezer slowly the first few 
minutes in freezing. 

In packing the freezing mixture around the cream 
container, fill the freezer about half full of finely crushed 
ice and finish the filling by using salt and ice in the 
proportion of about one to three. As the ice mixture 
works down during the freezing process, continue adding 
more salt and ice as needed. 

If the freezer is started while the cream is still warm 
(about 60° F.), the speed of the freezer must be kept 
down until a temperature of about 35° F. is reached. 
After this the speed is increased to 150 to 200 revolutions 
per minute until the cream is frozen. This speed insures 
the proper incorporation of air and the desirable smooth- 
ness of the finished product. 

The freezer should be stopped before the cream be- 
comes too thick, else it will lose some of the air that has 
been incorporated as well as show a tendency to coarse- 
ness in texture. Yield and quality therefore demand that 
the freezer be stopped while the cream is still a trifle soft. 

Vanilla Ice Cream. To make three gallons of finished 
ice cream, requires about two gallons of cream to which 
should be added about three pounds of sugar, or one 
and one-half pounds to the gallon. The sugar should be 
well mixed with the cream and allowed to dissolve before 
starting the freezer. Next add at the rate of about two- 
thirds ounce of vanilla extract and freeze. 



230 DAIRY FARMING 

Chocolate Ice Cream. This can be made by adding 
chocolate flavor to finished vanilla ice cream. 

Where a regular batch of chocolate ice cream is made, 
the chocolate is added before starting to freeze. 

Lemon Ice Cream. In making lemon flavored ice 
cream, use the best paper-wrapped lemons, free from any 
signs of decay. Wash the lemons lightly in cold water 
and grate off the outer, yellowish portion of the rind, 
being careful not to grate off any of the white portion 
which is very bitter. Mix the grated rind with sugar, 
using one ounce of sugar for each lemon rind. Next cut 
the lemons in two and squeeze out the juice, removing 
any seeds that may have dropped in from the squeezer. 
Mix the juice with the sugared rind and add orange juice 
to the mixture, using one orange to every three or four 
lemons. Allow the mixture to stand for about one hour, 
stirring it occasionally, and then strain. Use at the rate 
of one-half pint per gallon of cream. The flavor is added 
to the cream when nearly frozen to prevent curdling it. 
Use two pounds of sugar per gallon of cream. 

Walnut Ice Cream. Use two gallons of cream, three 
pounds of sugar, one and one-third ounces vanilla ex- 
tract and one and one-third pounds of ground walnut 
meats. Freeze the same as vanilla ice cream. 

Other Nut Ice Creams. Chestnut, filbert, hazelnut, 
pecan, peanut and almond ice creams may be prepared 
essentially as walnut ice cream. 

Strawberry Ice Cream. Use two gallons of cream, 
three pounds of sugar and two-thirds quart of crushed 
strawberries. The fruit should be added to the cream 
after it is partially frozen so as not to curdle the cream 
or to have the fruit settle to the bottom. 



ICE CREAM MAKING 231 

Other Fruit Ice Creams. Cherry, raspberry, pine- 
apple, peach, apricot, currant, grape and cranberry ice 
creams are made the same as strawberry, except that the 
amount of sugar is varied according to the acidity of 
the fruit. 

Packing Ice Cream. Remove the ice cream from the 
freezer while still in rather soft condition and put the 
same in packing cans which have been thoroughly chilled 
by having the ice and salt packed around them about ten 
minutes before receiving the ice cream. Most of the 
salt should be put near the top, the same as in freezing. 
The ice cream should be held in the packing cans at a 
temperature below 20° F. 

Remove the brine and repack often enough to prevent 
melting. In the melting process the water separates and 
forms undesirable crystals when the cream is refrozen. 
Always repack with a new freezing mixture just before 
the ice cream leaves the dairy. 

The Overrun or Swell. This refers to the excess of 
ice cream over cream. Anything that tends to incorporate 
and hold air in cream conduces to a large overrun. Thus 
excessive beating of the cream during freezing mixes a 
great deal of air with it, and hence, increases the over- 
run. A high viscosity of the cream holds the air incor- 
porated during freezing. Fresh separator cream has a 
low viscosity, that is, does not whip well, hence will not 
swell up so much in freezing as cream that has been kept 
cold for twenty-four hours. Pasteurized cream also has 
a low viscosity, but this will improve by keeping the 
cream at a low temperature a number of hours before 
freezing. 

An overrun of from 50 to 60 per cent is large enough. 



232 DAIRY FARMING 

Overruns approximating 80 to 90 per cent are obtained 
at the expense of quality. 

Marketing Ice Cream. Hardly any attempt has yet 
been made by cream producers living within driving dis- 
tance of cities to convert their cream into ice cream 
and sell this product direct to consumers. This is some- 
what surprising, since the largest profits in the cream 
business have hitherto been made by what may be called 
the middleman, the city ice cream manufacturer. 

It is a vital matter with producers to reach consumers 
direct wherever this is possible, and thus save the mid- 
dleman's profits. With those who retail milk and cream, 
the marketing of ice cream would entail no extra expense. 

The essential thing in building up a good ice cream 
trade is to make the best product possible. The market 
is glutted with cheap, inferior ice cream, and the call 
now is for a high grade product. Fortunately the public 
is beginning to realize that there is positive danger in 
eating ice cream made from old, stale milk or cream, and 
the public also seems to begin to understand that the 
bulk of ice cream is made with so-called thickeners, like 
gelatine, corn starch, tapioca, arrow root, and others. 
Many so-called ice creams contain no cream whatever. 
The highest quality of ice cream contains nothing but 
good, pure cream, sugar and flavoring. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

MAKING AND MARKETING SKIM MILK-BUTTERMILK. 

Souring the Skim=milk. As soon as the skim-milk 
leaves the separator, whole milk is added at the rate of 
one gallon to twenty gallons of skim-milk. This gives the 
mixture a fat content, which approximates that of ordinary 
buttermilk. A large quantity of pure culture of lactic 
acid bacteria (starter, see p. 193) is next added and the 
temperature brought to 70° F. Enough starter is added to 
curdle the skim-milk in about six hours at the temperature 
mentioned. This requires about one pound of culture for 
every three pounds of skim-milk. When a temperature 
above 70° F. is employed, there is a tendency for whey 
to separate after the skim-milk has curdled. 

Churning.- When thoroughly curdled, the skim-milk 
is placed in a churn and churned for about thirty minutes 
in the same way that cream is churned in making butter. 
The churning process thoroughly breaks up the curd clots, 
resulting in a smooth, thick liquid which cannot be dis- 
tinguished from ordinary good buttermilk. 

Cooling. Immediately after the buttermilk leaves the 
churn, the temperature should be reduced below 50° F. 
to prevent further development of acid and the separa- 
tion of the whey. Ordinary milk and cream coolers with 
enlarged holes in the distributing receptacle will answer 
very satisfactorily. 

Straining. As soon as cooled, the buttermilk should 
233 



234 DAIRY FARMING 

be run through a strainer consisting- of one thickness of 
cheese cloth to remove any unbroken curd clots. 

Bottling. After it is strained the buttermilk is bottled 
or put in tin cans holding from one to five gallons, after 
which it is placed in the refrigerator where it is held until 
ready for delivery. 

Marketing Skim=milk Buttermilk. In trying to sell 
skimmilk-buttermilk it is necessary in the first place, to ex- 
plain that this product, when made as herein described, is 
almost identical with the highest grade of natural butter- 
milk, both in composition and physical properties, and, 
therefore, in palatability and wholesomeness. Indeed, it 
is not thought possible under average conditions to secure 
natural buttermilk of as uniform a quality or as fine a 
flavor as can be obtained from skim-milk. When these 
facts are explained to dealers and consumers, any preju- 
dices which might exist against this so-called artificial 
product are certain to vanish. 

The dealers in buttermilk should be furnished with 
attractive signs, calling attention to the fact that the 
product is for sale by them. Buttermilk is not found at 
all soda fountains, and unless conspicuous signs are 
posted at these places, the public may not call for it. 

Buttermilk may readily be sold to drug stores, restau- 
rants, hotels and boarding houses at from ten to thirty 
cents per gallon, averaging about twelve cents per gallon. 

As with cottage cheese, the most satisfactory way of 
disposing of buttermilk is to sell it direct to the milk 
and cream customers along the dairy route. 

Where buttermilk is intended to be used as a beverage, 
it is important to keep its temperature below 50° F. until 
it is consumed. 

Food Value of Buttermilk. When used as a bever- 



SKIMMILK-BUTTERMILK 235 

age, buttermilk is usually appreciated only for its palata- 
bility. Aside from this, however, it has a high dietetic, 
as well as high medicinal, value. In certain diseases, 
especially those affecting the alimentary tract, buttermilk 
is considered indispensable. Its nutritive value is high, 
two quarts being approximately equal to one pound of 
good beefsteak. 

Buttermilk From Pasteurized Skim=milk. The best 
buttermilk is obtained by adding the starter to pasteurized 
skim-milk. Under such conditions the entire skim-milk 
becomes virtually a starter or pure culture of lactic acid 
bacteria. This not only means a better flavor but also 
insures freedom from pathogenic organisms. Pasteuriza- 
tion also lessens the tendency for the whey to separate. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

CERTII^IED MILK. 

Definition. Certified milk is milk produced under 
conditions imposed by medical milk commissions, which 
usually employ a veterinarian, a bacteriologist and a 
chemist to look after the production of the milk. It must 




Fig. 70. —Sanitary Dairy Barn. (Da. Div., U. S. Dept. of A.) 

be free from disease germs and preservatives, must have 
a known chemical composition, and must be so produced 
and handled as to insure a minimum number of bacteria. 

236 



CERTIFIED MILK 



237 



If the producer has compUed with all the requirements 
he is furnished a certificate by the commission, which 
permits him to use the "certified" label on his products. 

The term "certified milk" is registered in the United 
States patent office and its use is legally permitted only 
on milk approved by medical milk commissions. 

Uses. Certified milk is now largely used for infants 
and invalids. There is, however, also a rapidly increasing 




Fig. 71. —Truman Sanitary Milk Pail. (Storrs, Conn. Station.) 

use made of this milk by the better informed people who 
realize the unsanitary condition of average market milk. 
Certified milk is the means of saving the lives of thou- 
sands of infants and its increasing use offers splendid 
opportunities for dairymen who are in a position to 
meet the requirements laid down by medical commissions. 
Production and Handling. The general conditions 
called for in the production of "certified" milk are essen- 
tially the same as those stated in the chapter on "sanitary 
milk production." 



238 DAIRY FARMING 

The cows, milkers and premises are regularly inspected, 
and the milk is regularly subjected to chemical and bac- 
teriological tests. The number of bacteria permitted by 
different commissions varies from 10,000 to 30,000 per 
cubic centimeter of milk ; and the fat content ranges from 
about 3.5 to 4.5 per cent. 

The milk bottles are sealed preferably with metallic 
caps bearing the date of bottling and the name of the 
commission. Delivery should be made within twenty- 
four hours after the milk is drawn and its temperature 
during this time should not exceed 45° F. 

In the dairy house arrangements must be such as to 
reduce contamination to a minimum. A receiving can 
placed in an ante-room is used by the milkers to empty 
their pails, and from this the milk is conducted into the 
milk room. A sterilizer with doors at both ends is pre- 
ferably placed between the milk room and the wash room, 
so as to enable the milkers to get their pails without enter- 
ing the milk room and, at the same time, to allow the 
sterilized bottles to be removed without entering the wash 
room. 

Profits. Obviously it costs more to produce certified 
than average market milk, but the additional cost is less, 
as a rule, than the increased price realized. Certified 
dairies that have failed to make money have almost in- 
variably invested more money in buildings and equipment 
than was actually necessary. It has been shown that this 
class of milk may be successfully produced in quite ordi- 
nary buildings and with moderately cheap equipment. 
What is of greatest importance is extreme cleanliness, 
which is achieved mainly through intelligent care and 
management of every detail of the work from start to 
finish. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

RELATIVE MARKET VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 

Many milk producers are so situated as to make it pos- 
sible for them to sell either milk, cream, butter, cheese 
or ice cream. To those so situated the question naturally 
arises, what method of disposal will yield the largest re- 
turns? This, of course, will depend to a great extent 
upon the relative market prices of these products. 

To show how dairymen may determine for themselves 
in what form they can realize most for their milk, a 
simple method of calculation is here presented, in which, 
for purposes of illustration, the following prices have 
been adopted : Milk, seven cents per quart ; 30% cream, 
one dollar per gallon ; butter, twenty-five cents per pound ; 
cheese, thirteen cents per pound ; and ice cream, made 
from 15% cream, one dollar per gallon. Using these as 
average prices for a given locality, determine the relative 
returns from one hundred pounds of milk containing 4% 
(4 lbs.) butterfat, (i) when retailed as milk, (2) when 
sold as cream, (3) when sold as butter, (4) when sold 
as cheese, and (5) when sold as ice cream. 

1. Value of Milk. Since milk weighs 2.15 pounds per 
quart, 100 pounds of 4% milk are equal to 46.5 quarts, 
which, at 7 cents per quart, are worth $3.25. 

2. Value of Cream. One hundred pounds of 4% milk 
will make 13.33 pounds of 30% cream, as determined by 
the following rule: 

239 



240 DAIRY FARMING 

Rule: To find the number of pounds of cream that 
can be obtained from a given amount of milk, multiply 
the milk by its test and divide the product by the test 
of the cream. Thus the amount of 30% cream from 
100 pounds of milk testing 4% equals 

100 X 4 , 

— — -^ =13-33 pounds. 

Since a gallon of 30% cream weighs practically the 
same as a gallon of water (8.35 lbs.), the 13.33 pounds 
of cream are equal to^ 1.6 gallons which, at $1.00 per gal- 
lon, are worth $1.60. Allowing one-half cent per pound 
for skim-milk, we have 43 cents as the value of the 86 
pounds of skim-milk, which gives a total value of $2.03 
for the 100 pounds of 4% milk. 

2. Value of Butter. One hundred pounds of 4% milk 
will yield 4 2-3 pounds of butter, because where up-to- 
date methods of creaming and churning are followed 
every pound of butterfat will make i 1-6 pounds of 
butter. Four and two-thirds pounds of butter at 25 cents 
per pound are worth $1.17. Valuing buttermilk at the 
same price as skim-milk (one-half cent per pound) 48 
cents should be added to the $1.17 as the value of the 
skim-milk and buttermilk, making a total value of $1.65 
for the 100 pounds of 4% milk. 

4. Value of Cheese. Since one pound of butterfat yields 
approximately 2.6 pounds of cured cheddar cheese, 100 
pounds of 4% milk will make 4 X 2.6, or 10.4 pounds of 
cheese, which, at 13 cents per pound, are worth $1.35. 
Allowing 10 cents as the value of the whey from the 100 
pounds of 4% milk, we get a total value of $1.45. 



VALUE OF MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 241 

5. Value of Ice Cream. Since a gallon of 15% cream 
weighs 8.45 pounds, 100 pounds of 4% milk will make 
3.15 gallons of 15% cream (see formula for calculating- 
cream, p. 240) or, allowing an overrun of 33 1-3%, 4.2 
gallons of ice cream. At $1.00 per gallon this is worth 
$4.20. To this must be added the value of yT, pounds of 
skim-milk which, at one-half cent per pound, are worth 
T,y cents, making a total value of $4.57 for the 100 pounds 
of milk made into ice cream. 

Summary. The preceding calculations show that 100 
pounds of 4% milk are worth 

$145 when sold as cheese, 
1.65 when sold as butler, 
2.03 when sold as cream, 
3.25 when retailed as milk, 
4.57 when sold as ice cream. 

It is. to be remembered that the above figures show the 
relative gross returns at the prices given. The net re- 
turns will vary greatly, depending largely upon the near- 
ness to market and the quantity of milk handled ; also to 
some extent upon the use to which the skim-milk is put. 
If fed to pigs and calves the value of skim-milk is less 
than one-half cent per pound ; if made into buttermilk or 
cottage cheese its value may range from one to two 
cents per pound. 

Table of Values. The following table of values has 
been prepared for handy reference. The price of milk is 
used as a basis, and the table shows at what prices cream 
and butter must be sold to give the same returns as milk : 



242 



DAIRY FARMING 



Per Cent, of 
Fat in Milk 


When Milk 
sells at 


20% Cream 
must sell at 


30 fo Cream 
must sell at 


Butter 
must sell at 


3.5 


5c per quart 
6c " 
8c " 
10c " 


25c per quart 
3lc " 
42c " 
53c " 


36c per quart 
43c " 
59c " 
75c " 


50c per pound 
60c " 
84c " 
11.06 " 


4.0 


5c per quart 
6c " 
8c " 
10c " 


22c per quart 
27c " 
37c " 
46c " 


31c per quart 
38c " 
50c " 
66c " 


44c per pound 
54c " 
73c " 
93c " 


4.5 


5c per quart 
6c " 
8c " 
10c " " 


20c per quart 

24c " 

32c " 

41c " " 


28c per quart 
34c .. 

46c " 
59c " 


39c per pound 

47c " 
65c " 
82c " 


5.0 


5c per quart 
6c " 
8c " 
10c " 


18c per quart 
21c " 
29c " 
37c " 


25c per quart 
30c " 
42c " " 
53c " 


35c per pound 
43c " 
59c " 
75c " 



In calculating the above values, skim-milk and butter- 
milk have been rated at 30 cents per 100 pounds. The 
weight allowed per quart is as follows : Milk, 2.15 pounds ; 
20% cream, 2.1 pounds; and 30% cream, 2.0 pounds. 
The cost of handling and retailing these products, as well 
as the cost of making the butter, has not been considered. 

From the table it will be seen that when 3.5% milk sells 
at 5 cents per quart, 20% cream must sell at 25 cents per 
quart, 30% cream at 36 cents per quart, and butter at 50 
cents per pound, to yield equivalent returns. Similarly, 
when 5% milk sells at 5 cents per quart, 20% cream must 
sell at 18 cents per quart, 30% cream at 25 cents per 
quart, and butter at 35 cents per pound. 

The table emphasizes the importance of selling milk on 
the basis of its fat content. 



PART 111. 

SUPPLEMENT 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF DAIRY STOCK. 

Valuing Cozvs. 

To put dairying on a business basis requires that a 
record be kept of each cow individually. This is im- 
portant not only to determine which cows are paying for 
their keep, but also to demonstrate to owners that high 
producers, as a rule, are valued too low in comparison 
with poor producers. Every cow must be valued ac- 
cording to the net returns obtained from her; that is, 
every item of expense must be deducted from the total 
receipts in order to know whether a cow has been kept 
at a profit or a loss. In the following paragraphs data 
are presented to show the method of determining the net 
profits as well as to give some idea of the relative value 
of cows of different productive capacities. The figures 
presented are based upon pure bred herds containing 
thirty cows and one bull each. Furthermore, it is assumed 
that all concentrated feeds are purchased at market prices 
and that all roughage is raised on the farm and charged 
at actual cost of production. To furnish the necessary 
roughage and pasture, one and one-half acres of land are 
allotted to each cow, one-half of which is devoted to pas- 
ture and the other half to hay and forage production. 
Eight years has been allowed as the period of usefulness 
of a cow. 

244 



VALUING DAIRY STOCK 



245 



Three cows have been selected whose annual butter fat 
production is 200, 300 and 400 pounds respectively. The 
receipts, expenditures and net profits from the three dif- 
ferent producers, Cow I, Cow II and Cow III, are shown 
as follows : 



Cow 


Cow 


I. 


II. 


2CK) 


300 


$40.00 


$100.00 


54.00 


81.00 


3.00 


8.00 


14.00 


21.60 


20.00 


22.50 


3.00 


3.00 


$94.00 


$136.10 


$40.00 


$50.00 


20.00 


20.00 


5-00 


5.00 


S-OO 


5.00 


1. 00 


1. 00 


2.00 


5.00 


4.62 


12.12 


.70 


1. 00 


1.60 


4.00 


2.50 


2.50 


$82.42 


$105.62 


$11.58 


$30. 4S 



Cow 
III. 



Annual butter fat production (lbs.) . . 
Market value placed upon cow. 

Annual Receipts- 
Value of butter fat at 27c per lb 

Value of calf 

Value of skim-milk at 30c per 100 lbs. 

Value of manure 

One-eighth final value of cow for beef 

Totals 

Annual Expenditures — 

Feed . . '. 

Labor, feeding and milking 

Interest on barn, silo, milk house and 
equipment valued at $100 at 5% 

Insurance and depreciation of build- 
ings and equipment at 5% 

Medical attention 

Interest on value of cow at 5% 

Depreciation of cow at 12^/2% 

Taxes on buildings and cow at J^%.. 

Risk at 4% 

Service fee 

Totals 

Annual net profit 



400 
$200.00 



108.00 

20.00 

28.80 

25.00 

3.00 

$184.80 



$60.00 
20.00 

5.00 

5.00 
1. 00 
10.00 
24.62 
1.50 
8.00 
2.50 

$137.62 

$47.18 



EXPLANATION OF ABOVE FIGURES. 

Price of Butter Fat. Prevailing prices of butter and 
cheese have been such as to yield farmers having their 



246 DAIRY FARMING 

milk made into these products, an average price for the 
year of 2^ cents per pound of butter fat. 

Value of Calf. A calf from a cow producing only 200 
pounds of butter fat a year must be valued at beef prices, 
which amounts to about $3.00 at birth. When the produc- 
tion reaches 300 pounds of butter fat and up, the value 
of the calf rapidly increases, as indicated in the tables. 
The price placed upon the calves from the larger pro- 
ducers it is believed, is a fair average market value. Their 
actual value is considerably greater than this. 

Value of Skim=Milk. For the purpose of this calcu- 
lation, the amount of skim-milk credited to each cow is 
based upon a 4% fat content of the milk and represents 
the total milk minus the butter fat it contains. While rat- 
ing the value of skim-milk at 30 cents per 100 pounds 
may be considered too high by some, it must be remem- 
bered that skim-milk has a fertilizing value which alone 
amounts to at least 10 cents per 100 pounds, and fully 
three-fourths of this is recovered in the manure. For 
poultry, young calves, and young pigs, the combined feed- 
ing and fertilizing value of skim-milk is higher than 30 
cents, especially when fed in a small quantity. 

Value of Manure; The manure from cows considered 
in the preceding table is valued according to its content 
of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, which according 
to their present commercial ratings are worth 19, 5, and 
5 cents per pound respectively. The fertilizing ingredi- 
ents vary with the kind and amount of feed supplied, and 
this again varies according to the productive capacity of 
cows and, to some extent, the section of the country in 
which the cows are fed. Largely because of these condi- 



VALUING DAIRY STOCK 247 

tions, the values here obtained are intended to be used 
as general averages only. 

In fixing the value of the manure from cows of different 
productive capacities, $15 is allowed as the value of the 
manure from the feed required for maintenance and for 
the development of the foetus. In this connection it 
should be remembered that the one and one-half acres of 
land allotted per cow are intended to supply all of the 
roughage needed, and this should contain nutrients suffi- 
cient for maintenance requirements. On one-half of this 
land there is grown, say, one ton of red clover hay and 
three tons of corn silage, which contain fertilizing ingre- 
dients to the value of $13.62. If one-half of this amount 
is allowed as the value of the fertilizing ingredients con- 
tained in the pasture from the other half of the land, the 
total value of the fertilizing constituents contained in the 
feed required for maintenance is $20.00. Some of the fer- 
tilizing constituents enter into the foetus, but it is safe 
to say that three-fourths of them, or $15 worth, pass into 
the manure. This maintenance feed, and its value as a 
fertilizer, is quite constant for cows of different pro- 
ductive capacities. Additional manurial value is, therefore, 
obtained from the amount of concentrated feeds supplied 
for milk production. According to European and Ameri- 
can figures, this amount is approximately 800 pounds for 
each 2,500 pounds of 4% milk, or for each 100 pounds of 
butter fat, produced. 

The manurial value of each pound of the common con- 
centrates varies from three-eighths cent for corn to about 
one and one-fourth cents for cottonseed meal and linseed 
meal, with intervening values of three-fourths cent for 
wheat bran, dried brewers grains and gluten feed, and 



248 DAIRY FARMING 

about one cent for gluten meal. From these values it is 
safe to assume an average of five-eighths cent per pound 
which gives the 800 pounds of concentrates a manurial 
value of $5.00. Since milk has a manurial value of about 
10 cents per 100 pounds, the manurial value of the 2,500 
pounds of milk is $2.50, which leaves $2.50 as the value 
of manurial constituents that actually enter into the 
manure for each 2,500 pounds of milk, or each 100 
pounds of butter fat, produced. For each 100 pounds of 
butter fat produced, therefore, $2.50 is added to $15 
which is the estimated value of the manure from feed 
required for maintenance. 

The value of the manure from cows of different pro- 
ductive capacities, as obtained in the above calculation, is 
based upon the assumption that all of the manure is saved. 
Unfortunately, however, many dairymen allow one-half or 
more of it to go to waste, but such carelessness on the 
part of dairymen should not be charged against the cow. 

While the value of the manure has been based solely 
upon its content of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, 
manure has values outside of these ingredients. Its me- 
chanical effect upon the soil through the humus it sup- 
plies, as well as the beneficial effects of the hosts of 
bacteria it contains, should not be underrated. 

Value of Cow for Beef. The final Value of a cow to 
the butcher may be placed at $24. Since the cow may be 
milked on an average eight years, one-eighth of the $24, 
or $3, should be credited to her annual receipts. 

Cost of Feed. On arriving at the cost of feed, it is 
to be remembered that one and one-half acres of land is 
allotted to each cow. This land, valued at $80 per acre, 
will undoubtedly furnish enough pasture and other rough 



VALUING DAIRY STOCK 249 

feeds to meet the usual maintenance requirements. In 
determining the cost of the forage grown on this land, 
$6.60 is charged as the interest and taxes on the value of 
the land, $3.40 as the cost of fencing, and $10 as the cost 
of the labor and seed required to raise the roughage on 
three-fourths acre of land. This makes a total of $20, 
the cost of maintenance. 

As stated above, approximately 800 pounds of grain or 
its equivalent, is required to produce 2,500 pounds of 
milk testing 4 per cent butter fat. This grain has an 
average market value of about $10. To the $20, the cost 
of maintenance, must therefore be added $10 for each 
2,500 pounds of milk, or for each 100 pounds of butter 
fat, produced. 

Net Profits.- The market value placed upon the cows 
is assumed to be the average price that one is obliged to 
pay when purchasing them. Where the cows are valued 
according to the actual cost of raising them, the net profits 
would be considerably higher than those shown in the 
preceding table, especially from the higher producers, as 
witness the following table in which the "net profits when 
the cow is raised," are based upon the cost of the cow 
as determined under "valuing calves," page 250. 



Annual Butter Fat Production Pounds 


200 


300 


400 


Net Profit when Cow is Bought 

(From Table, Page 245) 
Net Profit when Cow is Raised 


III. 58 
11.58 


$30.48 
42.38 


l47-i8 
77.98 



The higher net profits from cows raised upon the farm 
are due to their lower cost to the dairymen, reducing the 
following expenses based upon the cost of the cow ; risk, 
taxes, interest and depreciation. 



250 



DAIRY FARMING 



VALUING CAI^VES. 

As a rule, calves from high-class cows are sold at prices 
considerably below their actual value. This is so because 
few dairymen appreciate the full value of calves from 
high producers. Not until such calves have grown into 
young cows is it possible to realize anywhere near their 
full market value, and hence the wisdom of selling young 
milch cows instead of calves. 

In the receipts from cows of different productive 
capacities shown on page 245, the values assigned to the 
calves from the higher producers are low as compared 
with the market price of cows of similar productive 
capacities. This is best shown by first calculating the 
approximate cost of raising calves from cows of differ- 
ent productive capacities, up to the time of dropping their 
first calf, namely, two years old, as follows : 



Value of calf at birth 

Interest at 5% 

Risk at 4% 

Interest, taxes, insurance and de 

preciation of barn 

Cost of feed 

Cost of labor 

Registration fee 

Service fee 

Taxes on calf 

Medical attention 

Total cost 

Value of manure 

Net cost at two years old 



From 200- 
pound Cow. 



From 300- 
pound Cow. 



From 400- 
poundCow. 



$0.30 
.24 

1.50 

40.00 

10.00 

2.00 

2.50 

.20 

.20 



$0.80 
.64 

I. SO 

40.00 

10.00 

2.00 

2.50 

.20 

.20 



$2.00 
1.60 

1.50 

40.00 

10.00 

2.00 

2.50 

.20 

.20 



^56.94 
20.00 



$57.84 
20.00 



j)bo . 00 
20.00 



56.94 



$.37-84 



$40.00 



VALUING DAIRY STOCK 



251 



This table shows that the cost of raising an ordinary 
two-year-old heifer may be taken on an average to be 
$37 and that this cost is not materially increased for high- 
class heifers. 

The following table shows that the market value as- 
signed to calves from the higher producing cows is low 
in comparison with the market value of the cows them- 
selves : 





Offspring from 




200-lb. 

cow. 


300-lb. 

COW- 


400-lb. 

COW. 


Market value of calf at birth 

Cost of raising calf up to two years 
old 


$3.00 
36-94 


$8.00 
37-84 


$20.00 
$40.00 


Total cost of two-year-old heifer 

Market value two-year-old heifer . . . 


$39-94 
40.00 


$45.84 
100.00 


$60.00 

200.00 


Increased net profit from selling 
heifer instead of calf 


$0.06 


$54.16 


$140 . 00 







The table shows that it is tmquestionably more profit- 
able to keep heifer calves until two years old than to sell 
them as calves. 



VALUING BUIvLS. 

In estimating the relative value of bulls capable of pro- 
ducing cows yielding annually 200, 300 and 400 pounds 
of butter fat respectively, it is assumed that each bull will 
produce fifteen heifer calves and fifteen bull calves an- 
nually. The relative value of the heifers from the differ- 
ent bulls, is based upon the relative net profits obtained 
from the cows as determined under "Valuing Cows," 
page 244. The bull calves from the different bulls are 



252 DAIRY FARMING 

given values corresponding to those given the calves in 
the calculation just referred to. 

Since cows producing only 200 pounds of butter fat a 
year are maintained at only a small profit, bulls capable 
of producing such cows will not be considered here. By 
referring to the figures showing the net profits from cows 
of different productive capacities it will be found that cows 
yielding 400 pounds of butter fat a year will produce an- 
nually $16.70 more net profit than those yielding 300 
pounds of butter fat. The immediate increased value of 
the fifteen heifer calves from the 400-pound bull will, 
therefore, amount to $16.70X15, or $250.50. 

Since these heifers will produce for a period of eight 
years, the real annual increased value represented by the 
fifteen heifer calves from the better bull will amount to 
$250.50X8 or $2,000.00. Adding to this $180 as the in- 
creased value of the fifteen bull calves, we have a total 
of $2,184 which represents the total annual increased value 
of the offspring from the 400-pound bull over that of the 
300-pound one. Allowing six years as the period of use- 
fulness of bulls, we get a grand total of $13,104 in favor 
of the 400-pound bull during his six-year period of use- 
fulness. 

If we value the 300-pound bull at forty dollars and the 
400-pound bull at $150, it will be necessary to deduct from 
the above the difference in the interest, taxes, risk and 
depreciation of the two bulls. These items, if figured the 
same as for cows, will amount to $172.68 for six years, 
leaving a net profit of $13,031.32 in favor of the 400- 
pound bull during his period of usefulness. 

If we value heifer calves according to the net profits 
obtained from cows when the latter are raised upon the 
farm, the differences found above will be considerably 
greater. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

LEGUMES (vXLFALFA AND CLOVERS). 

One of the greatest factors in successful dairying at 
the present time is the growing of an ample supply of 
leguminous crops, such as alfalfa and clovers. There are 
several reasons for this: (i) legumes improve the soil 
by adding to its store of nitrogen; (2) legumes are rich 
in protein and can, therefore, take the place, to a great 
extent, of high priced commercial feeds rich in protein. 

The bacteria that live upon the roots of alfalfa and 
clovers have the power of taking the nitrogen from the 
air an'd putting it into the soil in a form in which it be- 
comes available for plant growth. Nitrogen when pur- 
chased in the form of commercial fertilizers, has a value 
of about twenty cents per pound. The dairyman who 
grows a sufficient quantity of clover and alfalfa gets the 
nitrogen absolutely free and in sufficient ciuantity not only 
to maintain the supply of nitrogen already in the soil, 
but by feeding the clover and alfalfa to stock the nitrogen 
content of the soil can be materially increased. 

With the increasing cost of commercial feeds rich in 
protein, it manifestly is a matter of economy for the dairy 
farmer to raise crops upon his farm which can take the 
place of expensive commercial feeds. There is no home 
grown feed which can take the place of grain or concen- 
trated commercial feeds to so great an extent as alfalfa. 
This will be readily understood when it is known that 

253 



254 DAIRY FARMING 

practical feeding trials have shown that good alfalfa hay 
has, pound for pound, the same value for milk produc- 
tion as wheat bran. It is generally known that red clover 
and other kinds of clover are rich in protein, but alfalfa 
is still richer in protein. 

Where conditions are favorable for growing alfalfa, 
there is perhaps no general farm crop that yields so great 
returns from an acre of land as alfalfa, especially when 
considering its favorable effect upon the soil. In favored 
localities alfalfa can be cut four times during each sea- 
son, yielding from four to five tons per acre. 

The roots of alfalfa penetrate the soil to great depths 
and for this reason, when once established, alfalfa will 
flourish during dry seasons when ordinary crops fail. 
Moreover, the deep root system of alfalfa enables it to 
obtain plant food from such soil depths as are entirely 
beyond the reach of ordinary farm plants. 

Alfalfa is a plant highly relished by all classes of live 
stock, though it cannot be as successfully grazed, perhaps, 
as red clover, at least not until it has passed through the 
second season; but, unlike red clover, alfalfa will con- 
tinue to yield good crops of hay many years without re- 
planting. It is well to remember that alfalfa does not 
thrive everywhere. It requires a well drained soil rich 
in lime and containing the right kind of bacteria. In 
limestone regions where sweet clover flourishes, alfalfa 
probably grows at its best. This plant is so valuable to 
dairymen that none can afford not to try to grow it. 

LEJGUMie HAY AND CORN SIIvAGE). 

Where a liberal allowance of rich legume hay is fed 
in conjunction with corn silage, little grain or concen- 



LEGUMES 255 

trates is required, except for heavy producers. Silage 
helps to balance the legume ration and supplies the suc- 
culence which the legume hay lacks. The two feeds, 
therefore, nicely supplement each other, not only so far 
as succulence is concerned, but also with respect to pro- 
tein and carbohydrates. 

For economical milk production it may be stated with- 
out fear of contradiction that there is no combination of 
winter feeds equal to legume hay and corn silage, sup- 
plemented with grain or concentrates according the yield 
of milk. It is economy also to feed silage and legume 
hay during periods when pastures are short. Especially 
important is it to have silage for summer feeding, a 
matter which is recognized now-a-days by leading dairy- 
men everywhere. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

the; dairy house;. 

Location. In selecting a site for a dairy house, con- 
venience and sanitation should be given first considera- 
tion. A well drained spot, free from rubbish and bad 
odors, and within reasonable distance from the barn 
should be selected. An abundance of good, pure water 
must be available. 

Floor Plans Designed by the Author. Dairymen who 
sell milk and cream occasionally have a surplus of these 
products on their hands, which is usually made into butter. 
Floor plans for dairy houses must therefore provide for 
small buttermaking outfits in addition to all the necessary 
apparatus for the handling of milk and cream. 

The floor plan shown in Fig. ']2 is designed to meet 
the needs of small dairymen. Figs. 73 and 76 illustrate 
plans which will answer the needs of dairymen having 
from twenty to fifty cows. The first two plans provide 
for retail milk; the last provides for farm buttermaking. 
There is no question that refrigerating machinery can be 
employed very advantageously in a great percentage of 
the larger dairies. 

Details of Construction. The foundation for the 
walls may be constructed of stone, brick or concrete. It 
should rest upon firm, solid ground below the frost line, 
and the top must be at least one foot above ground. 

In building the walls, place the studs two feet apart 

256 



DAIRY HOUSE 



257 




Extreme length, i6 feet. 
Extreme width, 12 feet. 



Ice. Box 



Drain 



> m 




Printing 

BOTTLItM© 

TAei_e 



Fig. 72 —Floor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk. 

and tack building paper on both sides. Weather 
board the outside and finish the inside as follows : 
Board up preferably with tongued and grooved 
lumber, and cover the boards with two thicknesses of 



258 



DAIRY I' ARMING 




Big. 73. — I'loor Plan of Dairy House for Retail Milk Trade, Suitable for Fifty I 
Cows. 18'x'24'. 

roofinjT;- paper. Next put on furring strips, one foot apart, 
and to these fasten wire lathing-. If the lathinj:^ is pro- 
vided with one-inch steel ribs the furring strips are not 



DAIRY HOUSE 



259 



needed. Next apply one and one-half inches of cement 
plaster consistini^ of one part cement, three parts clean, 
coarse sand, and one part slacked lime paste. Press the 




CO 

3: 

CO 



8X12 



COLD WATER 
TANK 

(or ice box) 



Fig. 74.— Milk House for Cream I'atrous. 

concrete partly throu,c:h the wire lathinpf. Finish with one 
part cement and one part sand and trowel off as smoothly 
as possil)le. This construction provides one three-fourths 
inch and one four-inch dead air spaces. 



260 



DAIRY FARMING 




Fig. 76.— Floor Plan of Dairy House for Farm Butterinaking. 



DAIRY HOUSE 



261 



Construct a four-inch concrete floor upon a well tamped 
foundation consisting of gravel, cobble stones and cinders. 




TEST TABLE 



WATER 
TANK 



MILK 
COOLER 



Fig. 75.— Milk House Whole Milk Patrons. 

These materials afford good drainage and thus prevent the 
cold and dampness usually associated with concrete floors. 
In preparing the concrete for the floor use one part 



262 DAIRY FARMING 

cement, two parts clean, coarse sand and four parts 
gravel or crushed stone. Finish with one part cement and 
two parts sand. 

All parts of the floor should slope toward the drain in 
the center. Round out the corners and edges of the floor 
with concrete to make them more easily cleanable. 

The ceiling should be about twelve feet high and built 
of the best ceiling lumber. Keep the ceiling well painted. 

Enough windows must be provided to afford ample 
light and to admit sunshine to all parts of the building. 

Provide ventilation in the milk and wash rooms by 
running tight ventilating shafts from the ceiling through 
the top of the roof. 

Sewerage.- Effective sewerage must be provided at 
the time the floor is laid. A bell trap should be placed 
in the center of each room and carefully connected with 
the sewer. Conduct the sewage far enough away to 
keep its odors a safe distance from the dairy house. 

Screening. Where proper sanitation is expected it is 
absolutely necessary to guard against flies, and this can 
easily be done by screening all doors and windows. Flies 
are a prolific source of milk contamination and must 
therefore be rigidly excluded from the dairy. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

WASHING AND STERILIZING MILK VESSELS. 

Wash Sinks. A matter of importance in washing 
milk vessels is to have the right kind of sinks, three of 
which are needed for the most satisfactory work: One 




Kig. 77.— Wash Sinks. 

for rinsing before washing, one for washing and one for 
final rinsing. 

For convenience the wash sink should be thirty-six 

263 



264 



DAIRY FARMING 



inches long, twelve inches deep, and sixteen inches wide. 
The bottom should be round and two feet from the floor. 
When closer to the floor than this too much stooping is 
required. 




Fig. 79.— Milk Bottle Brush. 
Fig. 78.— A Good Cleaning Brush. 

Galvanized iron furnishes one of the most suitable ma- 
terials for the construction of wash sinks. They should 
be provided with steam (or hot water) and cold water 
pipes as shown in Fig. yy. 

Method of Washing. All vessels should be thor- 
oughly rinsed in 
warm water to re- 
move small residues 
of milk and cream. 
The rinsing is fol- 
lowed by washing 
with moderately hot 
water to which a 
handful of some 
cleaning powder has 
been added. The 
washing should be 
done with brushes 
rather than cloths be- 
cause the bristles en- 
ter into crevices which 
a cloth could not possibly reach, 
in clean water. 

A bottle washer, like that shown in Fig. 8o, saves much 




Fig. 



.—Bottle Washer. 



Finally rinse the vessels 



WASHING AND STERILIZING 265 

labor and does very efficient work. The motive power 
may be either steam or water. 

Sterilizing. Vessels that have been washed in the man- 
ner described above may look perfectly clean, but may 
still be far from being free from bacteria. These can be 
destroyed only by exposing the vessels to the boiling 
temperature for some time. 




Fig. 81.— Cheap Arrangement for Securing Hot Water. 

The simplest method of sterilizing is to place the vessels 
in boiling water for five minutes. This method com- 
mends itself especially to small dairymen who have no 
steam. 

Where no steam is available, the best means of pro- 
curing hot water is the apparatus shown in Fig. 8i. 

The hot water tank is that commonly used in residences 
for heating water for the bath tub and can be obtained 



266 



DAIRY FARMING 




Fig. 82. —Sterilizing Truck and Front of Brick Sterilizer. 

from plumbers for about $7.00. Any stove in which 
iron coils can be heated will answer as a heater. 

The best method of sterilizing is to place the vessels 



WASHING AND STERILIZING 



267 



in a steam chamber of sufficient strength to withstand a 
pressure of ten or more pounds to the square inch. These 
steriHzers are usually constructed of concrete or brick and 




Fig. 83. — Cross-Sectiou of Concrete Sterilizer. 

are provided with a heavy iron door which is large enough 

to admit a truck bearing the pails, cans, bottles, etc. Other 

sterilizers of this type are constructed of galvanized iron. 

The principal drawback to some of these sterilizers is 



268 



DAIRY FARMING 



their high cost, which renders their use by small dairy 
men almost prohibitive. 

Cheap Sterilizers. A cross section through a cheap 
concrete sterilizer is shown in Fig. 83. It is essentially 
a rectangular concrete tank with a wooden cover which 
is lined with zinc. The sides and bottom are five inches 
thick and are built of concrete, which is made up of one 
part cement, two parts sand, and two parts coarse gravel. 
A thin coat, consisting 01 one part cement and two parts 
sand, is used as an inside finish. 

Fig. 84 shows a common galvanized iron sterilizer 
which answers the purpose for small dairymen. 




Fig. 84.— A Cheap Sterilizer. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 



KEEPING ACCOUNTS. 



Various methods are followed in keeping accounts with 
patrons, but nearly all of them involve the use of tickets, 
route book, and some form of ledger. The method here 
described is recommended because of its simplicity. 

Tickets. Most customers prefer to settle their milk 
and cream 'accounts daily. This they do by purchasing a 
quantity of tickets from the milkman and handing them 
out every time milk or cream is purchased. 

The tickets should be used but once. Where they are 
repeatedly used they become dirty and a real source of 
danger. Passing from one household to another they 
are likely to become contaminated with disease germs 
and thus become the means of disseminating disease. 

The coupon ticket presented on the next page is one of 
the most satisfactory in use at the present time. The 
portion of the ticket above the perforations is retained by 
the milkman. If the ticket is paid for at the time of pur- 
chase, tliis must be indicated on the stub retained by the 
dairyman as well as on the customer's ticket. 

Coupon tickets are also used for cream and buttermilk. 
Tickets for different products should have different 
colors. 

Tickets are not absolutely necessary ; indeed, many cus- 
tomers prefer to do without them. Where no tickets are 



2(59 



270 DAIRY FARMING 



No 



Mr (2^ ' ^-aJc^-^ 

To TICKETS $1.00. AULK. (S^,/»0~(i 

MILK. 
NO. .^^^'. ^.X.....JQl2^...^. 190^ 

Mr. CJ V ?:^=?^^*??''^- 

To SPRING VALLEY DAIRY, Dr. 

J. L. JONES. Prop., Middleton, N. Y. 

r.™K.,s„oo. n,^,€Zl^ 

Received Payment . yyf^ /fy. . . - 

Date .4G^-Q:.' •? 190^ 



►- SPRING VAtLEY DAIRY. o j ^ SPRING VAIJlEY DAIRY. O 

I ONE Of. MILK I I ONE QT. MILK | 

o MIDDLE10N. N, Y. ^ ! o MIDDLEt\)N, N. Y. ^ 

►^ SPRING VALLEY DAIRY. o ^ ^ SPRING VALLEY DAIRY, o 

I ..ONE OT. MILK I 1 1 ONE QT • MILK | 

§ MIDDLETON, N. Y. ^ jo MIDDLETON, N. Y. ^ 

h: SPRING VA|.LEY DAIRY. g ; ^ SPRING VALLEY DAIRY. o 

^ ONE Qt. MILK I 1 1 ONE QT. MILK | 

i MIDDLETON. N.Y. ^ f o MIDDLETON, N. Y. ^ 

^ '"spring valley DAIRY. o f h^ SPRING VALLEY DAIRY. o 

^ ONE Of. MILK 2 ! ONE of- MILK | 

o MIDDLETON, N. Y ^|° MIDDLETON, N. Y. ? 

H^ SPRING VaIlEY DAIRY. o I ^ SPRING VAQ.EY DAIRY. o 

^ ONE OT. MILK 2 ^ ONE Of- MILK 2 

O MIDDLETON. N. Y. ^1© MIDDLET|DN, N. Y. ^ 

f * i 

Coupon Ticket. 



KEEPING ACCOUNTS 



21 \ 



used, an account is rendered at the end of the month 
similar to that rendered by the grocer. 

Route Book. It is evident that if customers were 
always supplied with tickets and regularly paid for each 
delivery of milk or cream, no further record would 
be necessary. But customers will run out of tickets oc- 
casionally as well as forget to regularly hand them out, 
hence it is necessary for drivers to carry with them a 
record or route book in which each transaction is recorded 
at the time it is made. A form suitable for this purpose 
is shown below. 



.d.Sf II yOyyt,^4'i9'y^,d. ^ 



^CLctcu)- 



i/vO'O-y*^, 



Form of Route Book. 



The route book consists of loose leaves, upon which 
the names of customers are arranged alphabetically. The 
leaves are renewed each month, the old one being placed 
on file for future reference. The letters b. m. stand for 
buttermilk. 

Ledger. As a rule all accounts are settled monthly. 
The ledger form shown below serves satisfactorily as a 
permanent monthly record. 

On the debit side are recorded the sales and the total 
value of the tickets purchased. On the credit side are 



272 



DAIRY FARMING 



recorded all the receipts for the same period. The balance 
represents the difference between the debits and credits. 



Dr. 


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DATE 

lacs. 

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1908 


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Form of Ledger. 

Monthly Statement. At the end of each month a 
statement should be rendered to customers showing their 
indebtedness. A form like that herewith shown answers 
the purpose satisfactorily. 



SPRIX«DALE SANITARY DAIRY, 

J, C. noONB, Proprietor 



t/ c 



j^yy^^ 



REID8VIl,l,e, N. H., 



ToSPRINGDALE SAJSIITARY DAIRY, dr. 

.1 C. BOONE. Proprietor 





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Monthly Statement. 



KEEPING ACCOUNTS 273 

Order Book for Supplies. For convenience as well 
as for permanent record, all orders should be made in 
duplicate in a book specially made for the purpose. The 
leaves in the order book are alternately marked "original" 
and "duplicate," the duplicate being made at the same 
time as the original by using carbon paper between the 
two. A suitable form of order blank is shown below. 

Original Springdale Sanitary Dairy. 

J. C. Boone, Prop. 

Order No Reidville, N. H 190. . 

To 

Dear Sir: Please deliver by the following: 



Invoice and ship to 

Springdale Sanitary Dairy, 

J. C. Boone, Prop., Reidville, N. H. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

WATER AND ICE SUPPLY. 
WATER SUPPLY 

Importance of Pure Water. A great deal of disease 
in farm homes is directly traceable to infected water. 
Typhoid fever especially is so frequently caused by pol- 
luted well water that physicians at once look to this as 
the probable cause wherever this disease is found to ex- 
ist. 

Where wells infected with disease germs happen to ex- 
ist on dairy farms that supply milk to neighboring cities, 
disease is not limited to the dairyman's own family, but 
may be spread along the entire milk route. Many typhoid 
fever epidemics have been positively traced to milk which 
has become infected through water containing the disease 
germs. Nowhere is pure water so important, therefore, 
as upon dairy farms. 

The disease germs usually find their way into the milk 
through milk vessels which have been washed with in- 
fected water. The use of such water for washing cows' 
udders previous to milking may also be the means of in- 
fecting the milk supply. 

Location of Well. The most satisfactory location for 
the well is at the dairy house where the coldest water is 
required and where it will be most convenient. Here the 
water for both the dairy, the home, and the stock can be 
pumped with the dairy engine. Further, the well, like 

274 



WATER AND ICE SUPPLY 



275 



the dairy house, should stand on slightly elevated ground 
so as to insure drainage away from it. 

Construction of Well. In a properly constructed 
well, no water should enter it except near the bottom. 
This compels the water to pass through a thickness of 
earth sufficient to purify it where the wells are of a 
reasonable depth. 

Where there is no rock or hard clay and where the 




Fig. 85.— Soil Strata. (From Harrington's "Practical Hygiene.") 

water can be had at a reasonable depth, the driven well, 
commonly knov/n as the Abyssinian tube well, is the 
cheapest and one of the safest. This well is made by 
driving into the ground a water-tight iron tube, the lower 
end of which is pointed and perforated. 

In case rocks and hard clay must be penetrated, or great 
depth must be reached to secure water, the bored or 
drilled well, piped from top to bottom with water-tight 
iron pipes, will be found most satisfactory. 



276 



DAIRY FARMING 



Water from the upper pervious stratum should be 
avoided wherever possible, even with wells of the kind 
just described. Especially is this necessary where the 
wells are shallow. The purest water is obtained by sink- 
ing the well through an impervious stratum, like that 
shown in Fig. 85. 

The most dangerous well is the common dug well with 
pervious walls and so located as to permit seepage into 
it from outhouses, barnyards and cesspools. Wells of 
this type are altogether too common on dairy farms. 




Fig. 86. —Sources of Well Water Contamination. (From Bui. 143 Kan. 
E;xp. Sta.) 

All wells, whatever their construction, must be provided 
with water-tight metallic or concrete covers to prevent 
the entrance of impurities into the shaft. 



ICE SUPPLY. 

Necessity of Ice. Where there is no equipment for 



WATER AND ICE SUPPLY 277 

mechanical refrigeration, ice is indispensible in furnish- 
ing the best quahty of milk and cream. A low enough 
temperature cannot be secured with water alone, neither 
can the cooling be accomplished as quickly as is desirable 
for best results. Furthermore, a satisfactory cold storage 
cannot be had without the use of ice. 

Cooling Power of Ice. A great deal of cooling can 
be done with a comparatively small amount of ice. This 
is due to the latent or "hidden" cold in ice. Thus to 
convert one pound of ice at 32° F. into water at the same 
temperature requires 142 units of heat, or, in other words, 
enough cold is given out to reduce the temperature of 
142 pounds of water one degree Fahr. 

Construction of Ice House. To keep ice satisfactorily 
three things are necessary, ( i ) good drainage at the bot- 
tom, (2) good insulation, and (3) abundant ventilation 
at the top. 

Good drainage and insulation at the bottom can be se- 
sured by laying an eight-inch foundation of stones and 
gravel and on top of this six inches of cinders, the whole 
being underlaid with drain tile. One foot of sawdust 
should be packed upon the cinders and the ice laid directly 
upon the sawdust. 

Satisfactory walls are secured by using matched boards 
on the outside of the studs and common rough boards 
on the inside, leaving the space between the studs empty. 
The ice should be separated from the walls by one foot of 
sawdust. 

Where no solid foundation walls are provided, earth 
must be banked around the ice house to prevent the en- 
trance of air along the base. 

The space between the sawdust covering on top of the 
ice and the roof should be left clear. Openings in the 



278 DAIRY FARMING 

gable ends as well as one or two ventilating shafts pro- 
jecting through the roof should be provided to insure a 
free circulation of air under the roof. This will not only 
remove the hot air which naturally gathers beneath the 
roof, but will aid in drying the sawdust. 

The ice must be packed solidly, using no sawdust 
except at the sides and bottom of the ice house and on 
top of the ice when the filling is completed. At least one 
foot of sawdust must be packed on top of the ice. 

Size of Ice House. The size of the ice house -will 
depend, of course, upon the amount of ice to be used. 
For a herd of 25 cows, in the North, an ice house 10 
feet square by 14 feet high will usually answer. These 
dimensions provide storage for 22 tons of ice, allowing 
one-foot space all around the ice for sawdust. In the 
South about 50% more ice is required than in the North. 

In calculating the amount of storage space needed for 
ice, it is necessary to know that one cubic foot of ice at 32° 
F. weighs 57.5 pounds. 

As a matter of convenience in filling and emptying the 
ice house, doors should be provided in sections from the 
sill to the gable at one end of the building. 

General Uses of Ice. Aside from the use of ice in 
cooling milk and cream, it can be employed to good ad- 
vantage in several other ways. Its value in the house- 
hold, in preserving meats, vegetables, and fruits cannot 
be overestimated. And what is so refreshing as cold 
drinks and frozen desserts during the summer months ! 
Ice is also frequently necessary in case of sickness. 

Cost of Making Ice. Where ice can be obtained with- 
in a reasonable distance, the cost of cutting, hauling, and 
packing should not exceed $1.50 per ton. 

Source of Ice. Always select the cleanest ice available. 



WATER AND ICE SUPPLY 279 

Where the source of ice is at too great a distance from 
the dairy, an artificial pond should be made upon ground 
with a reasonably impervious subsoil and with a natural 
concave formation. If such a piece of ground is flooded 
with water during the coldest weather, an ample supply 
of ice will be available in a very short time. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS. 
COMPOSITION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 



Water. 
Per Cent. 



Fat. 
Per Cent. 



Milk Sugar, 
Per Cent. 



Casein and 
Albumen, 
Per Cent. 



Ash. 
Per Cent. 



Skim-milk , 
Buttermilk 
Whey 



90.50 

90-39 
93.10 



o.io 

0.50 
0.30 



4-95 
4.06 

5-iS 



3-57 
3.60 
0.80 



0.78 

0-7S 
0.65 



Skim=MiIk as a Feed. This is a question in which 
dairymen should take greater interest because, as a 
rule, the feeding value of skim-milk is underestimated. 
Feeding trials show that five pounds of skim-milk are 
equal to about one pound of grain (corn, barley, oats). 
They also show that on an average four pounds of grain 
will produce one pound of gain with young pigs, while 
five pounds will produce the same gain with pigs from 
six to twelve months old. On this basis twenty pounds 
of skim-milk are required to produce one pound of gain 
with young pigs and twenty-five pounds with older pigs. 
With pork at eight cents a pound, one hundred pounds of 
skim-milk will produce 40 cents worth of pork with young 
pigs and 32 cents worth with older ones. 

The amount of skim-milk required to produce a pound 
of veal is shown by feeding trials to range on an average 
from fifteen to twenty pounds. Taking the latter figure 



280 



DAIRY BY-PRODUCTS 281 

and valuing veal at 7 cents a pound, skim-milk is worth 
35 cents per 100 pounds for veal production. 

The highest returns from the feeding of skim-milk 
are secured when fed to poultry. Careful experimental 
tests show that as high as 75 cents per 100 pounds may 
be realized for skim-milk when fed to poultry 

Skiin=milk as a Fertilizer. Many who are selling 
the skim-milk ofif the farm do not sufficiently appreciate 
the fertilizing value of this material. At the lowest esti- 
mate skim-milk has a fertilizing value of ten cents per 
hundred pounds. 

Buttermilk as a Feed. Buttermilk has essentially 
the same composition as skim-milk. It contains a little 
more fat, but less sugar, part of which has been changed 
into lactic acid. For pig feeding, except in the case 
of very young pigs, it has practically the same feeding 
value as skim-milk, as shown by numerous feeding ex- 
periments. It is also a good poultry feed. It can not be 
recommended, however, for calf feeding, though it has 
been used with fair success in some instances. 

Whey as a Feed. Whey when properly cared for has 
practically one-half the feeding value of skim-milk. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 



machine; milking, 



Recent results secured by experiment stations and nu- 
merous large dairymen indicate that the milking machine 
may become an important factor in future dairying. The 
testimonials from these sources show that machines milk 
quite as satisfactorily as average hand milkers ; and since 
one attendant can milk four to six cows at the same time, 
there is a material saving in labor, besides making labor 
more agreeable. Many, however, have pronounced ma- 
chine milking unsatisfactory. 

Principle of Operation. Milking by machine is ac- 
complished by Luction similar to that produced by a suck- 
ing calf. The suction 
is intermittent and is 
created by producing 
a partial vacuum in a 
system of pipes to 
which the milking 
machines are attached 
during milking. 

Apparatus. The 
necessary apparatus 
for machine milking 
consists of a milker, 
which includes a tin 

pail, teat cups, etc. ; a vacuum pump ; some form of 
power ; a vacuum reservoir ; two vacuum gauges ; a safety 

282 




Fig. 87.— Milking Machine in operation. 



MILKING MACHINES 283 

valve; and about 150 feet of gas pipes. Each machine 
milks two cows. 

Cost of Apparatus. The following may be considered 
an approximate estimate of the cost of a milking outfit 
for about 30 cows: Two milkers, $180; vacuum pump, 
$50; vacuum reservoir, including two vacuum gauges 
and a safety valve, $35 ; a two horse power gasoline 
engine, $85 ; and pipes and piping, $50 ; The cost of 
pipes depends largely upon the distance of the power 
from the barn. It is not necessary to have the power in 
the barn or even near it. ( See Chapter on Farm Power. ) 

Operating Machine. When ready to begin milking 
start the vacuum pump and place a milker between two 
cows and open valve on main vacuvmi pipe. Bend over 
teat cups and attach one by one to one cow and then 
proceed to do the same with the other. Similarly attach 
one or two more milkers, so as to keep four to six cows 
milking at the same time. A short glass tube at the ma- 
chine shows when the milking is completed. 

The mouthpieces on the teat cups must be of a size 
to correspond with the size of the teats. They must be 
neither too small nor too large. It is important, also, 
that the piping system be kept air tight and free from 
moisture. 

Details concerning the installation and operation of 
the machines may be had for the asking by writing to 
the manufacturers. 



CHAPTER XL. 

PASTEURIZATION 01'' MILK AND CREAM. 

The process known as pasteurization derives its name 
from the eminent French scientist Pasteur. It consists 
in heating and coohng milk and cream in a manner which 
will destroy the bulk of bacteria in them, but which will 
leave their chemical and physical properties unchanged 
as far as possible. 

Advantages of Pasteurization. The advantages to 
be derived from pasteurization vary with the conditions 
under which the milk is produced and the efficiency with 
which the work is conducted. If the milk comes from 
dairies where disease and uncleanliness prevail, pasteur- 
ization will prolong the keeping quality of the milk and 
also materially lessen the danger from disease germs. 
If, on the other hand, healthfulness and cleanliness re- 
ceive the exacting attention which prevails on certified 
dairy farms, nothing can be gained by subjecting milk 
to the pasteurizating process. 

Disadvantages of Pasteurization. The principal dis- 
advantages are as follows: (i) the cost of pasteurizing 
apparatus; (2) the cost of pasteurizing ; (3) the tendency 
to promote uncleanliness on the part of the producer; (4) 
the tendency to reduce the cream line on the milk; 
(5) lessening of the whipping property of the cream; 
and (6) the tendency to impart a "cooked" flavor to the 
milk and cream. 

Methods of Pasteurization. Two general methods 

284 



PASTEURIZATION 285 

are now in vogue : ( i ) the discontinuous method by which 
every particle of milk and cream is heated from ten to 
thirty minutes according as the temperature is high or 
low; (2) the continuous method by which milk and cream 
are permitted to pass in a constant stream through the 
pasteurizer and are subjected on an average less than 
one minute to the pasteurizing temperature. 

In general the most efficient pasteurization is obtained 
with the discontinuous method. 

Pasteurizing Temperatures. Obviously where milk 
is heated only a minute or less, a higher temperature 
must be employed than where it is heated for a much 
longer period of time. With the continuous method 
the temperature varies from 160° to 180° F. With 
the discontinuous method the temperature varies 
from 140° to 155° F. Exposing milk or cream to 
a temperature of 145° F. for twenty minutes results 
in very satisfactory pasteurization. The temperature and 
time of exposure should always be such as to insure the 
destruction of the tubercle bacillus, which is one of the 
most resistant of the disease bacteria most commonly 
found in milk. 

Quick Cooling. In pasteurizing the heating must be 
quickly followed by thorough cooling. This is an ex- 
tremely important part of the pasteurizing process. It is 
desirable that the temperature be reduced at once to 45° 
F. or below. 

Viscogin. Thorough pasteurization reduces the vis- 
cosity or whipping property of cream. To restore the 
original viscosity a solution of sucrate of lime is added, 
which is known as viscogin. This solution is made by 
adding an excess of slaked lime to three parts of sugar 
dissolved in five parts of water. The mixture is al- 



28G DAIRY FARMING 

lowed to stand twenty-four hours, after which the clear 
liquid at the top is poured from the sediment and pre- 
served in a stoppered bottle. 

Add one part viscogin to about 150 parts of cream. 
Never add so much as to render the cream alkaline. 

While viscogin is entirely harmless, it is nevertheless 
an adulterant and cream treated with it must be so 
labeled. 

Inefficient Pasteurization. Milk that has been un- 
derheated is more dangerous than that which has not 
been heated at all. The reason for this is that inadequate 
heat in pasteurizing may destroy the lactic acid bacteria 
(which are easily killed) and by so doing actually better 
the conditions for the growth of the more resistant and 
obnoxious kinds. Lactic acid organtsms are antagonistic 
to other classes of bacteria and are therefore a real safe- 
guard to milk. This makes it plain that unless milk is 
pasteurized at a temperature which will destroy the 
pathogenic and non-acid bacteria as well as the acid bac- 
teria, it is far better not to heat it at all. 

Pasteurization should be condemned where its only ob- 
ject is to keep milk sweet. Its real object should be to 
destroy all actively growing bacteria and especially all 
disease-producing organisms such as the tubercle bacillus 
which is among the most resistant. 

Pasteurizing in the Home. If milk must be pas- 
teurized to render it safe, there is no better place to do 
this than in the home where it is to be consumed. The 
pasteurizing is very easily and satisfactorily accomplished 
by the use of a small double milk or rice boiler which 
can be procured for about one dollar from hardware deal- 
ers everywhere. It is essential to stir the milk while 
heating and to use a reliable thermometer. 



CHAPTER XIJ. 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS. 



Milk and cream yield butter in proportion to their 
butter fat content. That is the reason why practically 
all milk and cream made into butter are now bought by 
the "Babcock test," that is, on the "butter fat basis." In 
discussing the method of paying for milk and cream, 
therefore, only the "butter fat basis" will be considered. 

The periodical payments made for milk and cream at 
creameries are known as creamery dividends. These pay- 
ments or dividends are sometimes made daily, as in the 
case of some gathered cream plants ; more often, how- 
ever, they are made weekly, semi-monthly and even 
monthly. 

The different steps in the calculation of dividends at 
creameries are as follows : 

First, find the total pounds of butter fat received from 
all the patrons. This is done by finding the total amount 
of butter fat furnished by each patron separately and 
adding together the totals so found. In finding each 
patron's total butter fat, every delivery of cream is mul- 
tiplied by its test and the results of the different deliv- 
eries added together. 

Second, find the net money from the sale of butter by 
multiplying each sale of butter by its price and deducting 
from the amount thus found the cost of making the butter. 

Third, find the price per pound of butter fat by divid- 

287 



288 DAIRY FARMING 

ing the total net money by the total pounds of butter fat 
delivered by all the patrons. 

Fourth, find each patron's share of the money by mul- 
tiplying the total pounds of butter fat delivered by him 
by the price per pound of butter fat. 

To make the above steps perfectly clear, let us cal- 
culate a weekly dividend at a creamery where only cream 
is received and where A, B and C are the patrons : 

Illustrating the First Step. The total butter fat de- 
livered by A, B and C is as follows : 

Pounds Pounds of 

of cream. Test, butter fat. 

J May 2 42 X 35.4 = 14.87 

May 4 50 X 30.1 = 15.05 

May 6 48 X 30.5 = 14.64 

May 7 20 X 36.6 = 7.32 

Total 51-88 



1 



r May 2 23 X 40.5 = 9.32 

B, J May 4 29 X 30.0 = 8.00 

j May 6 25 X 36.4 == 9.10 

^ May 7 13 X 35.0 = 4.55 



Total 30.97 

May 2 64 X 33.0 = 21.12 

C _^ May 4 69 X 31. 1 = 21.46 

May 6 58 X 37.5 = 21.75 

May 7 30 X 34.4 = 10.32 



{ 



Total 74-65 

The total butter fat delivered by A, B and C equals 51.88 + 
30.97 + 74.63 equals 157-48 pounds. 

Illustrating the Second Step. The net money is 
found as follows: 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 289 

Pounds of Price per 

butter sold, pound. Amount. 

May 3 86 X 26><c === $22.79 

May 7 103 X 26c = 26.78 

Total lbs. butter 189 Total money $49-57 

At 3^ cents a pound for making-, the cost of manu- 
facture will be 33^ X 189, or $6.62. Deducting this 
amount from the total money, there remains $42.95, 
which is the total net money due the patrons. 

Illustrating the Third Step. The price per pound of 
butter fat is obtained by dividing the total net money 
found in step two by the total pounds of butter fat found 
in step one. Thus: $42.95 -f- 157.48 = 27.27 cents = 
price per pound of butter fat. 

Illustrating the Fourth Step. Find the money due 
each patron by multiplying the butter fat furnished by 
him as determined in step one by the price per pound 
of butter fat as determined in step three. Thus : 

51.88 X %.2-]27 = $14.15 = A's money. 
30.97 X .2727 = 8.44 = B's money. 
74.65 X .2727 = 20.36 = C's money. 

ACTUAL OVERRUN. 

In a well conducted creamery the total pounds of but- 
ter made is always greater than the total pounds of 
butter fat received ; the difference is called the overrun. 
Thus, if during a certain time a creamery makes 2,400 
pounds of butter from 2,000 pounds of butter fat, the 
overrun equals 2,400 less 2,000, or 400 pounds. The 
per cent of overrun is found by dividing the number of 



290 DAIRY FARMING 

pounds of overrun by the total pounds of butter fat re- 
ceived and multiplying the quotient by lOO. Putting this 
in the form of a formula, we have : 

Per cent ) pounds of overrun 

ry. > = . X 100 

Uverrun ) ^^^^j poinds of butter fat 

Where 2,000 pounds of butter fat will make 2,400 

pounds of butter, the overrun will therefore equal : 

400 _ 

X 100, or 20%. 

2000 

A mistake not uncommonly made in calculating the 
per cent overrun is to divide the pounds of overrun by 
the total pounds of butter, instead of the total pounds, of 
butter fat. 



APPENDIX. 

Period of Gestation. This refers to the time which 
elapses between conception and calving. The average 
period of gestation of a cow is 283 days. 

Frequency of Heat. As a rule non-pregnant cows 
will come in heat every 21 days. The period of heat lasts 
from 2 to 3 days. 

Metric System of Weights and Measures. This 
system was devised by the French people and has very 
extensive application wherever accuracy in weights and 
measures is desired. Some of its equivalents in ordinary 
weights and measures are given in the following table: 



Ordinary weights and measures. 


Equivalents in metric system. 




28 35 grams. 


1 quart 


9464 liter. 




3,7854 liters. 


1 fluid ounce 


29 57 cubic centimeters (c.c.) 

4536 kilogram. 
64 8 milligrams. 

2 51 centimeters. 

0.3048 meter 




linch 

1 foot 







ADDRES.SES OF DAIRY CATTLE BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS. 



Breed. 


Secretary. 


Postofflce. 


Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein-Friesian 


J. J. Hemingway 

Wm. H. Caldwell 

F. L. Houghton 

C. M. Winslow 


8 W. 17th St., New York, 

N. Y. 
reterboro, N. H. 
Rrattleboro, Vt. 







291 



292 



DAIRY FARMING 



Rations According to Yield of Milk. The Connec- 
ticut (Storrs) standard rations for varying yields of milk 
are shown in the following table: 

TABLE — I^EEDING STANDARDS. 





Live 
weight, 
pounds. 


Daily, per 1,000 pounds of live weight 


When giving 
dally. 


Total 
dry mat- 


Digestible nutrients, pounds. 










Nutritive 






ter, 
pounds. 


Protein. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Fat. 


ratio. 


10-20 lbs. milk. 


700-950 


20 22 


2 


10 12 


0.3 5 


1:6.0 


20-25 " 


700-950 


21-23 


2 3 


10-12 


0.4 6 


1:5.3 


25-30 " 


700 950 


21-23 


2.6 


10 12 


0.4-0.6 


1:4.7 


30 35 " 


700 950 


22-24 


2.9 


11-13 


0.5-0 7 


1:4.6 


35^0 " 


700 950 


22 24 


3 2 


11-13 


0.5-0 7 


1:4.2 


10-20 " 


950-1100 


22 24 


2.3 


12-14 


4 6 


1:6.1 


20 25 " 


950-1100 


22 25 


2.6 


12-14 


5 7 


1:5.5 


25-30 " 


950-1100 


23 25 


2 9 


12 14 


0.5 0.7 


1:5.0 


30-35 " 


950-1100 


24 26 


3 2 


13 15 


6-0.8 


1:4 9 


35-40 " 


5*50-1100 


24 26 


3.5 


13-15 


0.6-0.8 


1:4.4 



Scale of Points for Judging Butter. Butter is 
judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for flavor, 
25 for texture, 15 for color, 10 for salt, and 5 for package, 
total 100. 

Scale of Points for Judging Clieese. Cheese, as a 
rule, is judged commercially on the basis of 45 points for 
flavor, 30 for texture, 10 for salt, 10 for color, and 5 for 
appearance, total 100. 

Millc Solids. The solids of milk include everything 
but the water. If a sample of milk be kept at the boiling- 
temperature until all the water is evaporated, the dry, 
solid residue that remains constitutes the solids of milk. 
It is convenient to divide the solids into two classes, one 
including all the fat, the other all the solids which are not 
fat. In referring, therefore, to the different solids of 
milk, we speak of the "fat" and the "solids-not-fat" 
which, together, constitute the "total solids." 



APPENDIX 



293 



Relationship of Fat and Solids=not=Fat. In normal 
milk a fairly definite relationship exists between the fat 
and the soHds-not-fat. For example, milk rich in fat is 
likewise rich in solids-not-fat. On the other hand, milk 
poor in fat is also poor in solids-not-fat. Hence the jus- 
tice of paying for milk, delivered to cheese factories, on 
the butter fat basis. See table on page 133. 

Composition of Cream. Cream contains all the con- 
stituents found in milk, though not in the same proportion. 
The fat may vary from 8% to 68%. As the cream grows 
richer in fat it becomes poorer in solids-not-fat. Rich- 
mond reports the following analysis of a thick cream : 

Per cent. 

Water 39.37 

Fat 56.09 

Sugar 2.29 

Proteids i .57 

Ash 38 

Capacity of Cylindrical Siloes. The approximate 
capacity of cylindrical siloes for well-matured corn silage 
is shown in the following table : 

TABLE — CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOES, TONS.* 











Inside diameter of silo, feet. 








Depth of silo, feet. 


10 


12 


14 

51 
55 
59 
62 
66 
70 
74 
78 
83 
8H 
P3 
96 
101 


15 

59 
63 
67 
72 
76 
81 
85 
90 
95 
100 
105 
110 
115 


16 

67 
72 
77 
82 
87 
90 
97 
103 
108 
114 
119 
125 
131 


18 

85 
91 

9r 

103 
110 
116 
123 
130 
137 
144 
151 
158 
166 


20 

105 
112 
120 
128 
135 
143 
152 
16n 
169 
178 
187 
195 
305 


21 

115 
13X 
132 
141 
149 
158 
168 
I'7 
186 
196 
206 
215 
226 


22 

127 
13. 
14' 
154 
164 
173 
184 
194 
204 
215 
226 
236 
248 


23 

138 
148 
158 
169 
179 
190 
201 
212 
223 
235 
247 
2-i8 
271 


24 

151 

161 
172 
184 
195 
206 
219 
23 1 
343 
265 
269 
2K-J 
295 


25 

163 

175 
187 
199 
212 
224 
237 
251 
264 
278 
293 
30 > 
32) 


26 


20 


26 
28 
30 
32 
31 
36 
38 
40 
43 
45 
47 
49 
51 


38 
40 
43 
46 
49 
52 
55 
58 
61 
61 
68 
70 
73 


177 


21 


189 


22 


203 


23 


916 


24 


■P-^Q 


25 


9i--> 


26 


957 


37 


971 


28 


9.85 


29 


300 


30 


315 


31 


330 


32 


316 







*From Modern Silage Methods. 



294 DAIRY FARMING 

Pasteurization of Mil,k. Where no ice is available, 
the keeping quality of milk may be materially prolonged 
by a process of heating and cooling known as pasteuriza- 
tion. This process consists in exposing milk to a tem- 
perature of about 150 degrees F. for thirty minutes, after 
which it is immediately cooled to the lowest temperature 
possible with water. This treatment destroys practically 
all of the bacteria in milk and thus not only materially in- 
creases its keeping quality, but also renders it free from 
harmful or disease-producing bacteria. 

Definition of Technical Terms. A list of technical 

terms not specially defined in the text is presented be- 
low: 

Albumenoids. — Substances rich in albumen, like the 
white of an Qgg, which is nearly pure albumen. 

Anaerobic. — Living without free oxygen. 

Centrifugal Force. — That force by which a body mov- 
ing in a curve tends to fly off from the axis of motion. 

Chemical Composition. — This refers to the elements or 
substances of which a body is composed. 

Colloidal. — Resembling glue or jelly. 

Concussion. — The act of shaking or agitating. 

Cubic Centimeter (c. c). — See metric system p. 203. 

Emulsion. — A mixture of oil (fat) and water contain- 
ing sugar or some mucilaginous substance. 

Enzymes. — Unorganized ferments, or ferments that do 
not possess life. 

F[BRiN. — A substance which at ordinary temperatures 
forms a fine network through milk which impedes 
the rising of the fat globules. 

Foremilk. — The first few streams of milk drawn from 
each teat. 



APPENDIX 295 

Galactase. — An unorganized ferment in milk which di- 
gests casein. 
Mammary Gland. — The organ which secrets milk. 
Meniscus. — A body curved like a first quarter moon. 
Mii.K Serum. — Milk free from fat. Thus, skim-milk is 

nearly pure milk serum. 
Neutral. — Possessing neither acid nor alkaline prop- 
erties. 
Non-conductor. — A material which does not conduct 

heat or cold, or only so with great difficulty. 
Osmosis. — The tendency in fluids to diffuse or pass 

through membranes. 
Rennet ExTRACT.--The curdling and digesting principle 

of calf stomach. 
Secretion. — The act of separating or producing from the 

blood by the vital economy. 
Specific Gravity. — The weight of one body as compared 

with an equal volume of some other body taken as 

a standard. 
Spore. — The resting or non-vegetative stage of certain 

kinds of bacteria. 
Sterilization. — The process of destroying all germ life 

by the application of heat near 212° F. 
Strippers' Milk. — The milk from cows far advanced in 

the period of lactation. 
Strippings. — The last few streams of niilk drawn from 

each teat. 
Suspension.— The state of being held mechanically in a 

liquid, like butter fat in milk. 
Tuberculin. — A sterile glycerine extract of the growth 

products of the tubercule bacillus. 
Vacuum.— Space devoid of air. 
Vegetative Bacteria. — Those bacteria that are in an 

actively growing condition. 



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t<lf THERE CAN BE NO BET- 
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practical exclusion of all other 
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50,000 Branches and Local Agencies the World Over 



INDEX. 



Page 

Abortion 113 

Acid, measures 130 

Acid, test 174 

Afterbirth, retention of 116 

Ailments of cattle 110 

Air of stable 161 

Albumen of milk • 129 

Alfalfa 253 

Ammonia fixers 103 

Appendix 287 

Ash of milk 129 

Ayrshire cattle 31 

characteristics of 32 



Babcock test 135 

apparatus for 137 

method of making IJO 

method of reading 141 

pointers on making 142 

principle of 13.5 

sample for 135 

Babcock testers 136 

Bacteria, discussion of 146 

Barn, dairy 86 

Barn yard, clean 157 

Barrenness 119 

Bedding for cows 162 

Bitter fermentation 151 

Bloat 119 

Bloody milk 120 

Breeding, purity of 14 

Breeding rack 77 

Building up herd 20 

Bull, selection of 17 

feeding of 74 

management of 74 

pedigree of 17 

pen 75 

297 



Page 

Bull, prepotency of 18 

type of 18 

valuing of 251 

Butter boxes 199 

cartons 186 

composition of 186 

marketing of 186 

salting of 182 

working of 183 

Buttermilk, feeding value 281 

Buttermilk, skimmilk 233 

Butterfat 125 

composition of 126 

method of estimating 60 

physical properties of 125 

production 11 

testing for 1 35 

Buttermaking 165 

Butter prints 184 

Butter, working of 183 

Butyric fermentation 150 



Calf, care of 85 

prenatal development of 82 

rearing 82 

scours 1J5 

stanchions 83 

Calves, feeding of 83 

selection of 23 

valuing of 250 

weaning of 82 

Carbohydrates 34 

Cattle, breeds of dairy 25 

Certified milk 236 

Cheese, amount of color in 187 

amount of rennet in 187 

composition of 192 

curing 192 



298 



INDEX 



Page 

Cheesemaking, Cheddar 187 

club 204 

cottage 199 

cream 204 

Neufchatel. 202 

soft and fancy 199 

Chromogenic fermentations ....15,'} 

Churning 180 

Clover 253 

Club cheese 204 

Cold storage 203 

Colostrum milk 130 

Composite sample jar 63 

Conformation of cows 11 

of bulls 18 

Cooley can 166 

Corn for silage 52 

when to cut 56 

Cottage cheese 199 

Cow, dairy, points of 12 

Cows stalls and ties 89 

Cows, buying 24 

clean 157 

drying off 79 

evolution of 9 

feeding of 83 

gestation period of 287 

health of 16 

management of 73 

milk organs of 13 

points of 12 

selection of 12 

type of 11 

valuing 244 

Cream bottle 195 

Cream, churnability of 171 

churning, temp, of 172 

composition of 289 

cooling 205 

frothing of 171 

marketing of 217 

pasteurizing of 284 

reading test of 144 

ripening 170 

scales 140 

separators 167 

shipping 224 



Page 

Cream, standardizing of 222 

stirring 173 

testing 142 

Creaming, centrifugal 165 

deep, cold 166 

dilution, method of 166 

efficiency of 167 

gravity 165 

methods of 165 

shallow pan 165 

Curdling fermentati m 149 

Dairy barn 86 

cross-section of 100 

ground plan for 87 

method of constructing .... 88 

ventilation of 96 

Dairy by-products 280 

Dairy calf, rearing of 82 

Dairy cattle associations 287 

Dairy herd, building up of 20 

starting of 22 

Dairy houses 256 

Dairy rations 37, 288 

Dairy temperament 12 

Dairy type 11 

Dairying, direct profits in 7 

indirect profits in 8 

winter 73 

Dehorning 80 

Diseases of cattle 110 

Disinfectants Ill 

Dry matter, definition of 34 

Escutcheon 14 

Ether extract 34 

Farm buttermaking 165 

Farrington acid test 175 

apparatus for 175 

method of making 176 

r'ats insoluble 127 

soluble 128 

Feed, estimating cost of 66 

Feeding calves 88 

Feeding cows 83 

according to flow 45 



INDEX 



299 



Page 
Feeding cows before and after 

calving 42 

^ frequency of 41 

practice of 41 

principles of 33 

Feeding silage 43 

Feeding standards 30 

Feeding tables 46 

Feeds, composition of 33 

digestibility of 35 

palatability of 35 

succulence of 35 

Foaming of cream 185 

Garget 114 

Gasoline engine 107 

Gassy fermentation 152 

Gestation, period of 287 

Glassware for Babcock test 136 

Grubs 121 

Guernsey cattle 27 

characteristics of 28 

Gutters for barn 95 

Hand separators 167 

Hay loft 97 

Health of cows 16 

Heat, frequency of 287 

Heifers, age to breed 78 

Herd management 73 

Herd records 60 

Holstein-Friesian cattle 29 

characteristics of 30 

Hoven 119 

Ice cream making 228 

Ice house 277 

Ice supply 276 

Indigestion 116 

Inversion of womb 117 

Jersey cattle 25 

characteristics of 26 

Judging butter 288 

Judging cheese 288 

King ventilator 95 



Page 

Lactic fermentation 148 

Legumes 253 

Lice, treatment for . 121 

Mangers 94 

Manure 101 

carrier 104 

fermentation of ....103 

leaching of 102 

losses in 102 

Marketing milK and cream 217 

Markets 213 

Metric system 287 

Milk and its products 239 

relative value of 239 

Milk, colostrum 130 

bottle 195 

certified 236 

cooling 205 

creaming of 165 

fever 112 

fermentations 146 

houses 256 

keeping account of 269 

marketing of 217 

organs 13 

pail, sanitary 159 

pasteurization of 284 

physical properties of 123 

quality of .132 

record sheet 62 

records 60 

room, sanitary 164 

sanitary 155 

scales 61 

secretion 130 

shipping 224 

standardizing 222 

straining of 160 

Milk sugar 129 

testing 135 

vessels 158 

wells 12 

Milkers, value of good 71 

effect of change of 69 

clean 158 



390 



INDEX 



Page 

Milking G8 

clean 70 

fast vs. slow 70 

frequency of 71 

machines 282 

treatment of cow during. . . 68 
with dry hands 158 

Neufchatel cheese making 202 

Nutritive ratio 39 

Palatability of feeds 35 

Pasteurization 284 

Pedigree 15 

Pelvic region 13 

Power on farm 106 

possibilities for 107 

Prepotency defined 18 

Principle of Babcock test ...... 135 

Principles of feeding 33 

Protein, definition of 34 

Purgatives Ill 

Purity of breeding 14 

Quality of milk, variations in.. 132 
Quarantining 110 

Ratio, nutritive 39 

Ration, definition of 38 

Rations, method of calculating. . 38 

standard 37 

Ropy fermentation 152 

Salt for stock 44 

Salting butter 182 

Samplers, milk 64 

Sampling milk 64 

Sanitary milk 155 

Scales, milk 61 

Secretion of milk 130 

Selection of cows 11 

Selection of sires 17 

Self-sucking cows 121 



Page 

Shallow pan creaming 16.j 

Skimmilk-buttermilk 233 

Skimmilk, feedinjg value of 280 

Silos 52 

advantages of twin 57 

capacity of 289 

concrete 55 

concrete lined 58 

construction of 54 

cutting corn for 59a 

filling of 59b 

location of 54 

Michels' twin 57 

size of 53 

Slimy fermentation 152 

Stalls 89 

Stalls, size of 94 

Standardizing milk and cream.. 222 

formulas for 222 

Starters 193 

Sterilizing vessels 263 

Sterilizers 266, 267, 268 

Stringy milk 120 

Teat troubles 120 

Technical terms, definition of. ..290 

Thermometer, dairy 179 

Test bottles 138 

Testing 135 

Toxic fermentation 153 

Tuberculin test 117 

Tuberculosis 117 

Urine, saving of 101 

Ventilation of barn 96 

Ventilation, King system 95 

Warbles 121 

Washing vessels 263 

Water for stock 44 

Water heater 265 

Water supply 274 



